Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands BUILDING BLOCKS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY FOR 2030 Policy Study Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands Building blocks for environmental policy for 2030 Paul Lucas Kathrin Ludwig Marcel Kok Sonja Kruitwagen Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands. Acknowledgements Building blocks for Environmental policy for 2030 PBL would like to thank the feedback group: © PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency Saskia Tjeerdsma (Ministry of Foreign Affairs), The Hague, 2016 Jaco Tavenier (Ministry of Infrastructure and the PBL publication number: 1966 Environment) and Hans Keulen (Ministry of Economic Affairs). Thanks also go to Ries Kamphof and Gabi Spitz Corresponding author (Kaleidos Research) and Albert Faber (Scientific Council paul.lucas@pbl.nl for Government Policy) for their valuable input on an earlier version of this report. Authors Paul Lucas, Kathrin Ludwig, Marcel Kok and Sonja English translation Kruitwagen. With contributions from Ron Franken, Christien Ettema, Shades of Green Olav-‌Jan van Gerwen, Aldert Hanemaaijer, Tiina Häyhä (Stockholm Resilience Centre and PBL), Onno Knol and English-language editing Robert Koelemeijer PBL Publishers Ultimate responsibility Production coordination PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency PBL Publishers Graphics Layout PBL Beeldredactie Textcetera, The Hague Parts of this publication may be reproduced, providing the source is stated, in the form: Lucas PL et al. (2016), Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands – Building blocks for Environmental policy for 2030. PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague. PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency is the national institute for strategic policy analysis in the fields of the environment, nature and spatial planning. We contribute to improving the quality of political and administrative decision-making by conducting outlook studies, analyses and evaluations in which an integrated approach is considered paramount. Policy relevance is the prime concern in all our studies. We conduct solicited and unsolicited research that is always independent and scientifically sound. Contents MAIN FINDINGS Summary 8 Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands 8 FULL RESULTS 1 Introduction 12 2 Existing Dutch policy targets in light of the SDGs 16 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Selection of environment-related SDG targets 16 2.3 Mapping SDG targets onto existing Dutch policy targets 18 2.4 Gap analysis: the Netherlands’ performance on existing policy targets 20 2.5 Conclusions 21 3 Challenges for national SDG implementation 22 3.1 Introduction 22 3.2 From global SDG ambitions to national policy targets 22 3.3 The need for policy coherence 24 3.4 The ‘energetic society’ 27 3.5 Conclusions 29 4 National SDG monitoring and accountability 32 4.1 Introduction 32 4.2 Various functions of monitoring 32 4.3 The Sustainability Monitor of the Netherlands 34 4.4 Conclusions 36 References 38 Appendix A Mapping analysis: Linking SDG targets to current Dutch policy targets 42 Appendix B Gap analysis: Evaluating Dutch policy performance on current targets 50  7 | SGNIDNIF NIAM MAIN FINDINGS   Summary On 25 September 2015, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. At the heart of this Agenda are 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 associated targets. These goals and targets build on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which expired in 2015, and on other international agreements. However, where the MDGs were mainly aimed at poverty reduction in developing countries, the 2030 Agenda is a broad sustainability agenda for all countries, including developed countries such as the Netherlands. This report analyses the implications of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for environmental policy in the Netherlands. What are the national policy choices with regard to the physical environment, in light of these SDGs? The analysis concludes that SDG implementation in the Netherlands can build on existing national policy targets, policy programmes and monitoring reports, but that certain adjustments will be required. First of all, the global SDGs have to be translated into a national ambition level, consisting of a clear, long-term vision supported by new and updated national policy targets for 2030. Secondly, successful SDG implementation requires close coordination of policy efforts and responsibilities between various ministries and provincial and local authorities, thereby ensuring policy coherence. Furthermore, active participation of various groups within society (e.g. citizens, businesses, NGOs) is required in defining and implementing the national vision and policy targets. Finally, a periodic national monitoring report is needed to track progress and – depending on the political ambition – to promote accountability by explaining underlying developments or even to evaluate policy performance. Sustainable Development Goals in Three categories of environment-related SDG targets can be distinguished (Figure 1). The first and largest category the Netherlands consists of SDG targets that are fully covered by existing Dutch policy targets. This category includes SDG targets The SDGs provide a new international reference for on water (goal 6), energy (goal 7) and terrestrial bio­ sustainable development for all countries diversity (goal 15), as well as various SDG targets from The 2030 Agenda is not legally binding, but the other goals. The second category consists of SDG targets signatories have committed to make every effort to fully that are only partly covered by existing Dutch policy implement the Agenda by 2030. The Agenda calls on targets and for which overarching national targets are governments to translate the global SDGs into national currently lacking. Finally, the third and smallest category targets and policies. As such, the SDGs provide a new consists of SDG targets for which the Netherlands international reference for development cooperation currently does not have relevant policy targets in place. policy as well as international and national sustainability This category includes SDG targets addressing ‘education policies. The task of national governments is to set a for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles’ level of ambition and formulate a clear, long-term vision (target 4.7), ‘information and awareness for sustainable defining what they would like to achieve with the 2030 development and lifestyles in harmony with nature’ Agenda. (target 12.8) and ‘education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change The Netherlands already has policy targets in place for mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early many environment-related SDG targets warning’ (target 13.3). Of the 169 SDG targets, 41 targets address the quality of the physical environment either directly (e.g. water, air, Translating the global SDGs to national policy targets for climate, biodiversity) or indirectly (e.g. via agriculture, 2030 involves defining new policy targets for the SDG industry, cities and sustainable consumption and themes that are insufficiently addressed by existing production). For an overview of the environment-related national targets, and updating relevant existing national SDG targets, see Appendix A. The remaining 128 SDG targets to the 2030 horizon. This should also be done at targets mainly address social and economic development EU level, given that most of the current targets have been and means of implementation. For the majority of the agreed at that level. It should be noted that when SDG 41 environment-related SDG targets, the Netherlands targets are insufficiently covered by existing policy already has relevant policy targets in place, most of which targets, the elements not covered may still be addressed have been agreed at EU or UN level. However, most of by national policies. For example, there are various these policy targets are aimed at 2020, while most SDG national policy initiatives – without explicit targets – targets are defined for 2030. 8 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands  Figure 1 Environment-related SDG targets covered by existing Dutch policy targets, 2015 25 Number of environment-related SDG targets relevant in the Dutch context Fully covered by existing policy targets 13 Partly covered by existing policy targets Not covered by existing policy targets 3 Number of other SDG targets l l.n Not analysed pb 128 Source: PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency to increase knowledge of sustainability in Dutch society for instance, by taking into account their environmental (SDG targets 4.7 and 12.8). impact beyond national borders. Translating SDG targets aimed at decoupling (environmental impact decreases Policy efforts are falling short of achieving existing Dutch while production increases) could be based on assessing policy targets what level of absolute decoupling would be sufficient to In the Assessment of the Dutch Human Environment 2014, achieve the underlying target. For example, a national PBL concluded that the Netherlands is falling behind target for increasing the share of renewable energy on many of its policy targets related to the physical in the energy mix should be based on the share that environment. Targets for air and water quality and nature would contribute sufficiently to the achievement of a conservation will only be achieved if policy efforts are low-carbon energy system in the long term. Ultimately, intensified, while targets aimed at reducing food wastage it is up to politicians to define national targets, in close and environmental pressure on ecosystems require consultation with actors within society, such as NGOs, fundamental policy redesign. The 2014 assessment businesses and academics. further concluded that progress on various policy targets had slowed down in recent years, which means that these SDG implementation in the Netherlands can build on targets will not be achieved. The national policy targets existing national policy programmes evaluated in the 2014 assessment directly relate to about The themes addressed by the environment-related SDG half of the 41 environment-related SDG targets. targets are not new to Dutch policy. New and updated policy targets for 2030 can be integrated in existing or New national targets and those that need updating could planned policy processes, such as the Green Growth be based on individual countries’ fair share in the global policy, the Government Vision on Nature and the Future sustainability effort and on sufficient absolute decoupling Agenda for Environment and Sustainability. Other Translating the global SDG targets into the national European countries are also working on integrating context requires the identification and definition of new the SDGs into existing policy processes. For example, and updated national policy targets. These national Germany aims to integrate the SDGs into its national targets should cover the most important elements sustainable development strategy, while Sweden aims of the SDG targets and be relevant in the national to base national SDG implementation on the principle context. The SDG targets leave ample room for that all its national and international policies should interpretation; most of them are phrased in broad and/ contribute to fair and sustainable global development. or non-quantitative terms and defined at global level, leaving it unclear what actions or target levels would be The broad range of themes addressed by the SDGs calls required on a national level. For SDG targets addressing for clearly defined policy responsibilities with regard to global environmental problems (e.g. climate change, specific policy targets and ensuring policy coherence biodiversity loss), national targets may be derived based Establishing clearly who would be responsible for on individual countries’ fair share in the global effort; the implementation of specific SDG targets and for Main findings | 9  ensuring policy coherence is crucial for successful SDG For national follow-up and review, the role of implementation. The diversity of SDG themes not only monitoring should be defined beforehand requires the involvement of various ministries, but also In addition to national SDG implementation, the 2030 of sub-national authorities, such as provincial authorities Agenda also calls on governments to facilitate systematic and local councils. Furthermore, it is essential that the follow-up and review. Periodic reports on national interlinkages between SDG targets (synergies and trade- monitoring may serve this purpose. An important offs) are also taken into account. For example, policy first step is to determine what the role of such reports themes for agriculture, water management, energy, should be; should they merely describe trends in climate and biodiversity are strongly interconnected. indicators relevant to specific SDG targets, or also report A ‘silo approach’ to SDG implementation should hence be on accountability with regard to societal and policy avoided. developments underlying the trends observed? If the monitoring activities are to assess the extent to which In addition to the interlinkages between various policy the targets are expected to be achieved, ex ante policy targets at the national level, environmental burden evaluation would be required. Businesses, NGOs, local shifting to other countries should also be taken into councils, provincial authorities and other parties may account. For example, national policy measures, such as report on their own contribution to SDG implementation. biodiversity conservation, increased use of biofuels and Linking those reports to the national monitoring report reduced use of agricultural inputs, may cause production will strengthen the role of these actors and increase the to be shifted abroad and thus could lead to an increase in comparability of sustainability efforts between public unsustainable agricultural activities and associated and private parties. environmental problems in those countries. These international effects are not explicitly addressed in the A national SDG monitoring report for the Netherlands 2030 Agenda. Footprint indicators, which relate national does not have to be developed from scratch, but can consumption to environmental impact both at home and build on the Sustainability Monitor of the Netherlands, abroad, may be used for assessing individual countries’ a periodic report that keeps track of sustainability in the fair share in the global sustainability effort and be Netherlands, using a broad set of indicators. However, included in the national follow-up and review. the conceptual framework and the indicator set of this sustainability monitor do not fully match the SDG system A clear and powerful vision may promote civic of goals and underlying targets. The Inter-Agency and participation Expert Group on SDG Indicators is tasked with developing National governments cannot achieve the SDGs all by an indicator set for global SDG monitoring, including a themselves. The scope and complexity of the SDGs framework to organise and present these indicators. require active participation by a broad range of actors The outcome of this effort – which is expected by spring (e.g. citizens, businesses, NGOs), not only to define 2016 – may be used to further think through the design national ambitions (what do we as society wish to options for a national monitoring report. By then, it could achieve?), but also for implementation (how are we going also be assessed whether and how future reports of the to achieve these ambitions?) and monitoring (are we Sustainability Monitor of the Netherlands and the Assessment of succeeding?). A clear and powerful long-term vision may the Dutch Human Environment could respectively be used to inspire and motivate these actors to actively contribute report on accountability and provide ex ante policy to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda. To accelerate analyses of SDG implementation. implementation, governments may actively facilitate national initiatives, such as public-private partnerships for development and sustainability. Through monitoring and evaluation, governments can learn from these initiatives for further policy development. 10 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands  FULL RESULTS STLUSER LLUF Main findings | 11 one Introduction This is an Agenda of unprecedented scope and significance. It is accepted by all countries and is applicable to all, taking into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities. These are universal goals and targets which involve the entire world, developed and developing countries alike. They are integrated and indivisible and balance the three dimensions of sustainable development. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; Paragraph 5 In September 2015, the United Nations General Assembly the global challenges related to climate and biodiversity adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (goals 13–15). (UN, 2015b). The 2030 Agenda is a key outcome of the 2012 UN Conference on Sustainable Development The 2030 Agenda is aspirational; the agreed goals and (Rio+20). It builds on the Millennium Development Goals targets are not legally binding. Governments agreed to (MDGs), which expired in 2015 (see Box 1.1), and on other set their own national targets, guided by the global level international agreements. Set for the 2016–2030 period, of ambition of the Agenda, and to incorporate these the Agenda offers a reference for international targets in national planning processes, policies and sustainable development. It consists of five parts: strategies. However, the Agenda provides little guidance 1. Preamble on how to do this, and the goals and targets leave ample 2. Declaration room for interpretation. Only one recent study regarding 3. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and targets Sweden offers first insights into the challenges involved 4. Means of implementation and the Global Partnership in national implementation of the 2030 Agenda (Weitz 5. Follow-up and Review et al., 2015). This study concludes that many SDGs deal with issues that are central to the political and social Keywords are transformation, integration and debate in Sweden and that the SDGs are far from a universality. At the heart of the 2030 Agenda are the marginal add-on to current policy and action. 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the associated 169 targets that operationalise the goals and For the Netherlands, the 2030 Agenda provides a guide the process of sustainable development reference for development cooperation policy, (transformation). The goals and targets integrate the three international policy on sustainable development and dimensions of sustainable development: the economic, national sustainability policies. Implementation of the social and environmental (integration). Where the MDGs 2030 Agenda is therefore a government-wide mainly aimed at poverty reduction in developing responsibility, involving, in particular, the Ministries of countries (with developed countries committing to a Foreign Affairs; Infrastructure and the Environment; Global Partnership for Development), the 2030 Agenda is Economic Affairs; Public Health, Welfare and Sport; Social a broad sustainability agenda for all countries, both Affairs and Employment; Education, Culture and Science; developing and developed (universality). For example, and Finance. However, implementation of the Agenda at goal 2 combines ending hunger with promoting national level has yet to be worked out in detail. sustainable agriculture, while goal 8 addresses not only economic growth and employment but also the In additional to national implementation, governments decoupling of economic growth from environmental agreed to engage in systemic follow-up and review of the degradation. In addition, three goals explicitly address Agenda’s implementation to track progress. The national 12 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands one 1.1 Millennium Development Goals The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were adopted by 189 countries during the Millennium Summit in 2000, aimed to eradicate extreme poverty in the world. The MDGs provided a guideline for international development cooperation, also for the Netherlands. The strength of the MDGs was that they consisted of a limited number of political goals, supported by a set of quantitative targets with clear deadlines for achieving these targets (Melamed, 2012). The MDGs were aimed at developing countries and required a commitment of developed countries to provide financial and technological support. Among other things, the MDGs included targets to halve poverty and hunger by 2015 relative to 1990 levels, to achieve universal primary education, and to reduce child mortality rates by two thirds between 1990 and 2015. One MDG specifically addressed environmental themes such as biodiversity loss and climate change. Recent assessments clearly show that considerable progress has been made on most goals and targets, with some of the global targets fully achieved (UN, 2015a). However, progress has been uneven, leaving significant gaps between countries and groups of people. Inequalities between rich and poor, men and women, urban and rural areas have not decreased substantially. Furthermore, problems of climate change and environmental degradations have only worsened, which could undermine the progress made (Hilderink et al., 2009). The MDGs have been criticised for being primarily a social agenda, paying insufficient attention to environmental issues such as climate change. In addition, the MDGs did not explicitly address important themes such as economic development and energy, and failed to recognise the interlinkages between the various issues addressed by the targets. Finally, the goals and targets were developed by donor countries within the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee (OECD-DAC), without significant participation of local stakeholders. Many of these criticisms have been addressed in developing the 2030 Agenda. The SDGs also consist of goals and targets, but are much broader than the MDGs as they also cover a range of environmental and economic themes. Furthermore, the 2030 Agenda is explicit about the integrated nature of the goals and targets (integration) and sets these goals and targets for all countries, not only developing nations (universality). Finally, the SDGs have been defined in an inclusive, participatory process, involving as many stakeholders as possible. reviews are to contribute to regional and global reviews address this question by analysing the SDGs in the and build on existing platforms and processes. Again, context of existing Dutch policy targets, by discussing the the follow-up and review processes are voluntary and challenges surrounding national implementation of the country-led. A set of global indicators, developed by the SDGs, and by exploring the implementation of a periodic Inter-Agency and Expert Group on SDG indicators (IAEG- progress review based on a national monitoring report. SDGs), is expected to be available by spring 2016. Chapter 2 examines to what extent the SDG targets for A recent study on the performance of the 34 Member the physical environment are already covered by existing States of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation Dutch policy targets. Furthermore, this chapter assesses and Development (OECD) with regard to the SDGs ranked to what extent current and planned policy efforts are the Netherlands among the seven best performing sufficient for achieving these existing targets, based on countries (Kroll, 2015). This study used two ‘snapshot the results of the Assessment of the Dutch Human Environment indicators’ per goal to assess which countries are ahead, 2014 (PBL, 2015). Our analysis focuses on policy targets at or behind, of other OECD countries in their performance national level, excluding Dutch policy targets for on each of the SDGs. However, the question is how development cooperation and foreign policy. relevant the selected indicators are in the context of the The autonomous Caribbean countries within the Netherlands. Furthermore, the indicator set only covers a Kingdom of the Netherlands are not covered in this subset of SDG targets and the study does not consider analysis. current and planned policies. Next, Chapter 3 examines a number of challenges for the The Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, together with the national implementation of the 2030 Agenda. We provide Ministries of Infrastructure and the Environment and of several starting points for the translation of the global Economic Affairs, has requested PBL to assess the SDG targets into national ambitions and discuss the challenges of the 2030 Agenda for policies related to the interlinkages between the SDGs and their implications for human environment in the Netherlands. In this report we national implementation. Furthermore, we explore how 1 Introduction | 13 one the national government may involve various non-state actors – such as citizens, cities, businesses and NGOs – in the process of defining and realising the national ambitions. Finally, Chapter 4 examines how to provide for systemic follow-up and review through a national monitoring report. As it is still being debated how the SDGs should be measured, this chapter focuses on the policy choices. We discuss the potential roles of a national monitoring report and examine to what extent the existing Sustainability Monitor of the Netherlands (CBS, 2015) already covers the SDGs and the different monitoring roles. 14 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands two Existing Dutch policy targets in light of the SDGs We encourage all Member States to develop as soon as practicable ambitious national responses to the overall implementation of this Agenda. These can support the transition to the Sustainable Development Goals and build on existing planning instruments, such as national development and sustainable development strategies, as appropriate The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Paragraph 78 2.1 Introduction made on these targets (policy evaluation). These insights may provide a starting point to decide on the ambition To assess the policy challenges of national SDG level and policy effort required for national SDG implementation, it is important to first identify the implementation. Figure 2.1 outlines the various steps in present state of policy. The SDGs are defined at global our analysis. level and have yet to be translated into national targets. Hence, national performance on the SDG targets cannot yet be determined. However, it is possible to assess to 2.2 Selection of environment- what extent the SDGs are already covered by existing national policy targets. After all, over the past decades related SDG targets the Netherlands has committed to a wide range of sustainability-related targets and launched various policy The 2030 Agenda consists of 17 political goals (see Box 2.1) programmes for their implementation. and 169 targets to operationalise these goals. The targets address three overarching themes: poverty reduction, In this chapter, we analyse how the SDGs relate to sustainable consumption and production, and protecting existing targets in Dutch human-environment policy. and managing the natural resource base. In addition, For this purpose, in Section 2.2, we select those SDG each goal includes targets related to the means of targets that are directly or indirectly related to the implementation, including financial instruments, capacity physical environment and relevant in the context of the building, market functioning, technology, institutional Netherlands. In Section 2.3, we assess to what extent the frameworks and access to information. selected SDG targets are already covered by existing policy targets in the Netherlands (mapping). Finally, Our analysis focuses on environment-related SDG in Section 2.4, we examine whether current and planned targets, independent of the goal they are part of. policy efforts are sufficient to achieve these existing Accordingly, our analysis mainly concentrates on SDG targets (gap analysis), focusing on targets evaluated in targets addressing sustainable consumption and the Assessment of the Dutch Human Environment 2014 (PBL, production, and protection and management of the 2015). natural resource base. Within these categories we focus on SDG targets that are relevant in the national context; Our analysis does not include a detailed assessment of SDG targets relevant to foreign policy (including existing policy programmes or specific policies for international development cooperation) are excluded achieving the present targets. However, it does provide from our analysis. This implies that environment-related insight into the extent to which the SDGs are already targets in the context of poverty reduction (e.g. access to covered by existing national targets and the progress clean drinking water and clean energy technology) are 16 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands two Figure 2.1 Analysis of existing policy targets in light of the Sustainable Development Goals Sustainable Environment- Existing Target gap Development selection related SDG mapping national performance analysis Goals (SDGs) targets policy targets pbl.nl Source: PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency 2.1 Sustainable Development Goals Goal 1 End poverty in all its forms everywhere Goal 2 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture Goal 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages Goal 4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all Goal 5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls Goal 6 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all Goal 8 Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all Goal 9 Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation Goal 10 Reduce inequality within and among countries Goal 11 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable Goal 12 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns Goal 13 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts Goal 14 Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development Goal 15 Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss Goal 16 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels Goal 17 Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development not covered. Finally, we do not consider the 63 SDG and stakeholder workshop this UNEP study identifies targets that relate to the means of implementation. 18 SDG targets (from 10 different goals), all of which are included in our analysis. To this selection we added the Sustainable consumption and production connects SDG targets for water quality (target 6.3), disaster risk environmental issues (such as biodiversity loss, climate reduction (target 11.5) and environmental impact of cities change, ocean acidification) and social themes (such as (target 11.6), because of their relevance for the health, equal opportunities, labour conditions) to Netherlands. As a result, our final selection for this theme economic activities, products and markets. From a consists of 8 targets from goal 12, which specifically production perspective it requires cleaner production addresses sustainable consumption and production, processes, eco-efficiency and corporate responsibility; and 13 targets that mainstream the objective of from a consumption perspective it requires changes in sustainable consumption and production into 9 other lifestyle, consumption preferences and consumer goals. behaviour of citizens and households. Our selection of SDG targets within the theme of sustainable Protecting and managing the natural resource base consumption and production is derived from a UNEP relates to keeping environmental degradation, such as discussion paper on indicators for SDG targets on this climate change and biodiversity loss, within acceptable theme (Bizikova et al., 2015). Based on a literature review limits (UNEP, 2014). This theme is addressed by the SDG 2 Existing Dutch policy targets in light of the SDGs | 17 two targets for climate change (goal 13), oceans, seas and The Netherlands has committed to a range of global marine resources (goal 14) and terrestrial ecosystems and policy targets through various multilateral agreements, biodiversity (goal 15). It is also addressed by various including the three Rio Conventions on climate change, targets from other goals, such as the targets for biodiversity and desertification2, the Sendai Framework agricultural genetic diversity (target 2.5), integrated water for Disaster Risk Reduction, and the Basel, Rotterdam resources management (target 6.5) and water-related and Stockholm Conventions on hazardous chemicals and ecosystems (target 6.6). Our final selection for this theme waste. At the European level, the Netherlands has consists of 20 SDG targets from 5 different goals.1 committed to various policy targets as part of EU Directives, Strategies and Roadmaps. Policy targets Adding the two themes together, our final selection of agreed at national level are often a translation or further environment-related targets consists of 41 SDG targets specification of European or global targets; examples from 13 goals (see Figure 2.2). The remaining 128 SDG include the Energy Agreement for Sustainable Growth targets mainly address social and economic development and the Waste to Resource programme. As Appendix A and means of implementation. Goals 5 (gender equality), shows, some SDG targets are covered only by policy 10 (inequality within and among countries), 16 (peaceful targets agreed at national level. This is the case for and inclusive societies) and 17 (means of implementation integrated water resources management (SDG target 6.5) and the global partnership) do not include any and reduction of waste generation (SDG target 12.5). environment-related targets. In the following sections, we analyse to what extent the selected SDG targets are Our mapping analysis shows that the Netherlands already already covered by existing Dutch policy targets and what has policy targets for the majority of environment-related the related policy choices are for national implementation SDG targets (see Figure 2.2). Many of these policy targets (Section 2.3), and whether current and planned policy have been agreed at EU or UN level. In our analysis, we efforts are sufficient to achieve the existing Dutch policy distinguish three categories of environment-related SDG targets (Section 2.4). targets: 1. SDG targets fully covered by existing Dutch policy targets 2.3 Mapping SDG targets onto 2. SDG targets partly covered by existing Dutch policy targets existing Dutch policy targets 3. SDG targets not covered by existing Dutch policy targets In this section, we assess to what extent the selected environment-related SDG targets (Section 2.2) are already The first category consists of SDG targets of which all covered by existing targets in Dutch national policy as elements are covered by existing Dutch policy targets. agreed at national, regional (EU) and global (mostly This includes all selected SDG targets for water (goal 6), UN) levels. Mapping SDG targets onto these current energy (goal 7) and terrestrial ecosystems and bio­ policy targets is far from a straightforward exercise, diversity (goal 15), plus a number of targets from other because the former leave ample room for interpretation goals. For example, SDG target 7.2 and the present Dutch (see Section 3.2). We therefore focus on the specific policy target for renewable energy are both aimed at themes and problems addressed by the selected SDG increasing the share of renewable energy in the energy targets and, at this level, compare them to relevant Dutch mix. However, while SDG target 7.2 aims to ‘increase policy targets. Current Dutch policies for achieving these substantially the share of renewable energy in the global national policy targets are not included in this analysis. energy mix by 2030’, the present EU target for the Netherlands requires the share of renewable energy in Appendix A presents an overview of Dutch policy targets total final energy consumption to be 14% by 2020. that are relevant for the selected SDG targets. This example illustrates that SDG targets and existing This information is largely based on the Environmental policy targets may have different ambition levels and Data Compendium (CBS et al., 2015). The overview different target horizons. Most SDG targets are set for includes both quantitative targets, such as for renewable 2030, while the existing policy targets are generally energy and waste recycling, and qualitative and semi- aimed at 2020. The 2020 horizon applies not only to qualitative targets, such as for disaster risk management overarching targets such as the Europe 2020 Strategy and and curbing illegal trade of protected species. the Roadmap Resource Efficient Europe, but also to Implementation programmes and policy visions that do various EU Directives (e.g. the Renewable Energy not include additional or new targets are explicitly Directive and the EU Energy Efficiency Directive) and the excluded from the analysis. Gothenburg Protocol for transboundary air pollution. 18 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands two Figure 2.2 Environment-related SDG targets covered by existing Dutch policy targets, 2015 SDG targets per Sustainable Development Goal Total number of SDG targets Goal 1 25 Goal 2 Goal 3 Goal 4 Goal 5 13 Goal 6 Goal 7 Goal 8 Goal 9 3 Goal 10 Goal 11 Goal 12 Goal 13 Goal 14 Goal 15 l l.n Goal 16 pb Goal 17 128 pbl.nl 0 4 8 12 16 20 Number of SDG targets Environment-related SDG targets relevant in the Dutch context Other SDG targets Fully covered by existing policy targets Not analysed Partly covered by existing policy targets Not covered by existing policy targets Source: PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency Some existing policy targets are already past their ‘due such as the Nitrate Directive, the Water Framework date’ or very close to it, for example, the NEC Directive Directive, the Birds Directive, the Habitat Directive and (national emission ceilings, to be met by 2010), the EU Air the NEC Directive, but an overarching target addressing Quality Directive (by 2010) and the national policy brief on all aspects of sustainable agriculture does not exist. sustainable food production (by 2015). Hence, national In addition, some SDG targets are addressed by implementation of the SDG targets requires that relevant internationally agreed policy targets that have not yet existing policy targets be updated and aligned to the been translated into national policy targets for the corresponding SDG targets, both in terms of ambition Netherlands; for example, the 2015 Sendai Framework level and target horizon. After all, the 2030 Agenda calls for Disaster Risk Reduction (relevant to SDG targets 1.5, on each government to ‘set its own national targets 11.5 and 13.1) and the UNEP 10-year Framework of guided by the global level of ambition’ (paragraph 55). programmes on sustainable consumption and production The EU has already set new policy targets for energy and (relevant to SDG targets 8.4 and 12.1). For all SDG targets climate for 2030 (European Council, 2014). Some other in the second category it should first be assessed which of policy targets are in the process of being redefined for the currently unaddressed elements are relevant to the 2030, such as the emission ceilings of the NEC Directive, Netherlands, before any additional targets are defined. or are planned to be redefined soon, such as the Furthermore, similar to the SDG targets in the first biodiversity targets of the Convention on Biological category, existing policy targets have to be updated and Diversity (CBD). However, most other policy targets have aligned to the corresponding SDG targets, both in terms yet to be updated. of ambition level and target horizon. The second category consists of SDG targets that are only The third category consists of SDG targets for which no partly covered by existing Dutch policy targets, or for corresponding Dutch policy targets were found. This is which overarching targets are currently lacking. the case for SDG targets addressing ‘education for This category includes various targets on agriculture (goal sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles’ 2), infrastructure and industry (goal 9), cities (goal 11) and (target 4.7), ‘information and awareness for sustainable sustainable consumption and production (goal 12). development and lifestyles in harmony with nature’ For example, the SDG target for sustainable agriculture (target 12.8) and ‘education, awareness-raising and (target 2.4) is partly covered by various EU directives, human and institutional capacity on climate change 2 Existing Dutch policy targets in light of the SDGs | 19 two mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early (PBL, 2015). The last column of this table shows the warning’ (target 13.3). Although many of these themes, related SDG targets. directly or indirectly, are covered by existing policies, the lack of national policy targets makes it difficult to About half of the environment-related SDG targets are measure progress and effectiveness of policies in these covered by national targets evaluated in the 2014 areas. Assessment. This Assessment concludes that although the Dutch physical environment is in fairly good shape, For SDG targets in the second and third category, many policy targets are not being achieved. The good the absence of overarching targets or insufficient news is that, over the past decades, air, water and soil coverage by existing policy targets does not mean that quality have improved and health damage from there are no relevant policies in place. For example, ‘cross environmental pollution has substantially declined. compliance’ (EU, 2009) is a policy instrument of the EU’s Also, the number of endangered plants and animal Common Agricultural Policy to promote sustainable species is no longer increasing. At the same time, the agriculture (part of SDG target 2.4). Furthermore, Netherlands is falling behind on many of its present the Netherlands has various policy initiatives (without policy targets, including international obligations. explicit targets) to increase knowledge and awareness of Targets for air and water quality and nature conservation sustainability issues (SDG targets 4.7 and 12.8), including will only be achieved if current and planned policy efforts the Duurzaam­Door programme for environmental are intensified, while targets aimed at reducing food education and sustainability awareness. The question is wastage and environmental pressure on ecosystems whether each and every element of all SDG targets require fundamental policy redesign. should be covered by national targets. Hence, for all SDG targets insufficiently covered by existing policy targets it This message is not new. But what is (relatively) new is should first be assessed if and how they are already being that progress on various policy targets has slowed down addressed by existing policy programmes, before deciding in recent years, which means that these targets will not whether it is necessary to formulate additional policy be achieved (PBL, 2013). Most of these policy targets are targets. intermediary targets along the way to achieving a clean, healthy and safe environment for the long term. For this to happen, fundamental changes in production and 2.4 Gap analysis: the Netherlands’ consumption structures are unavoidable. The 2014 Assessment concludes that these transition processes are performance on existing policy not being implemented efficiently or rapidly enough targets (PBL, 2015). The intentions of the 2030 Agenda call for a next step in Dutch environmental policy, including the In the previous section, we assessed which of the defining of a national ambition level for 2030. The current environment-related SDG targets are already covered policy gaps identified by the 2014 Assessment should be by existing Dutch policy targets. In order to provide taken into account when defining this ambition level. insight into the policy effort required for national SDG implementation, a useful next step is to assess to what The 2014 Assessment does not cover existing Dutch extent current and planned policy efforts are sufficient to policy targets related to SDG targets on soil pollution achieve these existing policy targets (gap analysis). In this (target 3.9), natural resource use efficiency and section, we evaluate target performance based on policy decoupling (targets 8.4, 9.4, 12.1 and 12.2), hazardous evaluation in the Assessment of the Dutch Human Environment chemicals (targets 3.9 and 12.4), corporate sustainability 2014 (PBL, 2015). reporting (target 12.6), sustainable public procurement practices (target 12.7), oceans, seas and marine resources The Assessment of the Dutch Human Environment is a (all targets of goal 14), access and benefit sharing biennial review by PBL of the current state of the (targets 2.5 and 15.6), poaching and trafficking of physical environment, gauging the performance of protected species (target 15.7) and the impact of invasive the Netherlands on relevant policy targets. alien species (target 15.8). Depending on the importance Each Assessment covers a number of relevant systems, and urgency assigned by government and society to such as energy, food, water and housing. Table B.1 in these issues, the corresponding national targets could be Appendix B provides an overview of indicators from the included in future versions of the Assessment of the Dutch 2014 Assessment and performance of the Netherlands on Human Environment and be tracked by relevant indicators these indicators in relation to current policy targets in the Environmental Data Compendium (CBS et al., 2015). 20 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands two 2.5 Conclusions The Assessment of the Dutch Human Environment 2014 shows that although the Dutch physical environment is in fairly Implementation of the SDGs in the Netherlands requires good shape, the Netherlands is falling behind on many of a translation of the global SDG targets to national policy its present policy targets, including international targets guided by the global level of ambition. As our obligations. Targets for air and water quality and nature analysis shows, defining the national ambition level for conservation will only be achieved if policy efforts are environment-related SDG targets can build on a broad intensified, while targets aimed at reducing food wastage range of existing policy targets to which the Netherlands and environmental pressure on ecosystems require has already committed. Many of these existing policy fundamental policy redesign. The 2014 Assessment targets have been agreed at EU or UN level; targets further concludes that the rate of progress on various agreed at national level are often a further specification targets has declined in recent years, such that various of European or global targets. However, the ambition long-term targets have fallen out of reach. These levels of these existing policy targets and the SDG targets concerns should be borne in mind when defining the are not always the same, and often difficult to compare. ambition level for national SDG implementation. Furthermore, the existing targets are generally aimed at 2020, while most SDG targets have been set for 2030. Mapping the environment-related SDG targets onto Hence, national implementation of the SDGs requires existing national targets and conducting a gap analysis to that existing policy targets be updated and aligned to the evaluate the Netherlands’ performance on these national corresponding SDG targets, both in terms of ambition targets is a first step in a broad policy analysis of national level and target horizon. Obviously, this should also be policy targets in light of the SDGs. Such analysis should done at EU level, given that most of the current targets cover all SDG targets and include a broad assessment of are derived from EU targets. all existing policy efforts relevant to sustainable development. Not all issues addressed by the environment-related SDG targets are covered by existing Dutch policy targets. A number of SDG targets are only partly covered, while Notes some others are not covered at all. The latter include SDG targets addressing ‘education for sustainable 1 SDG target 14.7 (Small-Island developing states and least development and sustainable lifestyles’ (target 4.7), developed countries) and 15.4 (mountain ecosystems) are not ‘information and awareness for sustainable development included in this selection, because they are not relevant to and lifestyles in harmony with nature’ (target 12.8) and the country of the Netherlands (the autonomous Caribbean ‘education, awareness-raising and human and countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands are not institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, covered in this study). adaptation, impact reduction and early warning’ 2 The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate (target 13.3). The question is whether national targets Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity should be formulated for each and every element of the (CBD) and the United Nations Convention to Combat SDG targets. To answer this question, a follow-up Desertification (UNCCD). analysis is needed to determine whether the SDG targets that are insufficiently covered by existing policy targets are instead being addressed by existing policy programmes, and to assess in which cases additional national targets are still necessary. 2 Existing Dutch policy targets in light of the SDGs | 21 three Challenges for national SDG implementation The Sustainable Development Goals and targets are integrated and indivisible, global in nature and universally applicable, taking into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities. Targets are defined as aspirational and global, with each Government setting its own national targets guided by the global level of ambition but taking into account national circumstances. Each Government will also decide how these aspirational and global targets should be incorporated into national planning processes, policies and strategies. It is important to recognize the link between sustainable development and other relevant ongoing processes in the economic, social and environmental fields The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; Paragraph 55 3.1 Introduction quantitative terms. In addition, most targets are defined at global level. This presents a major challenge for the The 2030 Agenda calls on governments to set their own translation of the SDGs to national policy targets, but also national targets, guided by the global level of ambition leaves room to account for national circumstances. In the but taking into account national circumstances, and to following subsections we provide a number of starting incorporate these targets into national policy processes points for this translation process. Ultimately, national and strategies. In addition, various paragraphs of the policy targets should reflect what society wants to 2030 Agenda emphasise that the goals and targets achieve, and hence it is up to politicians to define these are integrated and indivisible and aim to contribute to ambitions. Obviously, various groups within society coherent sustainability policies. Furthermore, it points out (e.g. NGOs, local councils, businesses and academia) that not only governments, but also other parties, such as should be involved in this process, not only to ensure the private sector, civil society organisations and NGOs, public support and commitment, but also to inspire play a vital role in the implementation of the 2030 Agenda. these groups to take action themselves (see Section 3.4). This chapter focuses on these three challenges for 3.2.1 Translation of broadly defined targets national implementation of the SDGs. In Section 3.2, Many SDG targets are broadly defined and vague in we examine how the global SDG targets may be terms of what is expected. Among the environment- translated into national policy targets. Next, in related SDG targets analysed in Chapter 2 of this report, Section 3.3, we explore the integrated nature of the SDGs about a quarter include the phrases sustainable use or and what this implies for national implementation. sustainable production. But what exactly is meant by Finally, in Section 3.4, we discuss how to involve the sustainable food production (target 2.4), sustainable and ‘energetic society’ in defining and achieving national resilient infrastructure (target 9.1) or environmentally sound policy targets. technologies (target 9.4)? Furthermore, many targets are multidimensional, addressing several issues at once. For example, target 1.5 aims to reduce exposure and 3.2 From global SDG ambitions to vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters, national policy targets and target 3.9 aims to substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, The SDGs leave ample room for interpretation. Many water and soil pollution and contamination. Tracking progress targets are broadly defined and/or phrased in non- 22 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands three on these broadly defined targets is generally not feasible environmental impact still increases with production with a single indicator. growth, but at a slower rate. In the case of absolute decoupling, total environmental impact declines with For sustainable agriculture (part of target 2.4) increasing production. the Netherlands has several national targets, but these are mostly limited to environmental aspects; Only absolute decoupling indicates truly sustainable an integrated set of targets has yet to be defined. In the development, but it is still is no guarantee. After all, Assessment of the Human Environment 2012 (PBL, 2012b), the rate by which environmental impacts are reduced PBL proposed a set of qualitative targets and related may still be insufficient for timely achievement of indicators. This set addresses a broad range of environmental targets. For example, absolute decoupling interrelated sustainability aspects including climate, of economic growth from greenhouse gas emissions biodiversity, resource efficiency, soil degradation, offers no guarantee for keeping global temperature rise water scarcity, water pollution, animal welfare, animal well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, as agreed health and labour conditions. Implementation of the upon at the Paris climate conference (UNFCCC, 2015). sustainable agriculture SDG would require further To meet this 2 °C target this century, global emission elaboration, and prioritisation, of these aspects. levels by 2100 would have to be zero or even negative (IPCC, 2014). Translating broadly defined SDG targets to the national level thus requires defining a set of national policy targets. Hence, a relevant first step in the translation of non- These policy targets should cover the most important quantitative SDG targets to national targets is to specify elements of the SDG target in question (Dietz and the underlying objectives for which decoupling is Hanemaaijer, 2012; Hák et al., 2016). In addition, required. For instance, decoupling may be necessary for they should be relevant in the national policy context. reducing specific health impacts or for achieving certain environmental targets (e.g. energy efficiency and 3.2.2 Translation of non-quantitative targets renewable energy targets to support long-term climate About half of the environment-related SDG targets targets). The next step, where possible, is to establish the analysed in Chapter 2 are phrased in absolute or level of sufficient absolute decoupling to achieve the quantitative terms (including verbs such as to ensure, underlying objectives. This level may be based on critical implement, maintain, double, halve). The remaining targets limits derived from impact (dose-effect) studies or be are relative: they aim to reduce, increase, or minimise based on global or regional environmental limits that something substantially, progressively or significantly, would have to be scaled to national level. With regard to without defining a specific target level. These relative 2030 targets serving as ‘stepping stone’ towards long- targets offer little guidance as to how to assess whether term sustainability goals (e.g. for climate or biodiversity), they are actually achieved. Obviously, it is possible sufficient absolute decoupling would be a level of ambition to monitor whether progress is being made, but to that keeps the long-term policy targets in sight and determine whether the achieved improvements are allows for potential setbacks. substantial, progressive or significant requires an evaluative framework based on quantitative criteria, where possible. 3.2.3 Translation of targets defined at global level Such a framework has yet to be developed. As mentioned previously, the SDG targets are mostly defined at global level and do not specify what actions or Many of the SDGs related to the human environment target levels are required at national level. For example, aim for a decoupling of production growth from target 7.2 aims to increase the share of renewable environmental effects, for example within the context of energy in the global energy mix, while target 12.3 aims economic growth (target 8.4), sustainable consumption to reduce global food waste. Other targets are aimed at and production (target 12.1) or cities (target 11.6). transboundary environmental problems, such as water Decoupling is more specifically addressed by targets for scarcity (target 6.4), climate policy (target 13.2) and sustainable agriculture (target 2.4), water scarcity biodiversity loss (target 15.5). The latter targets are (target 6.4), renewable energy (target 7.2), energy mostly qualitative, but may be quantified based on global efficiency (target 7.3), waste (targets 12.4 and 12.5) and or regional environmental limits (see Section 3.2.2). climate (target 13.2). Decoupling applies to the relationship between production growth and variables Translation of these global SDG targets to national policy relevant to sustainable development, such as energy targets raises the question of equity. Equitable consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, resource use distribution of limited natural resources and fair sharing and biodiversity loss. Decoupling can be either relative or of responsibilities towards solving global environmental absolute. In the case of relative decoupling, total problems are important but difficult issues in the global 3 Challenges for national SDG implementation | 23 three sustainability debate. Global consumption of natural change, biodiversity loss, nitrogen flows and global resources and related advantages and disadvantages are freshwater use) in relation to the spatial scale at which generally not equally distributed among countries and these processes take place (such as the global scale for between groups of people. Due to the global nature of climate change and watershed scale for water scarcity). many sustainability issues, the effects of non-sustainable They also addressed socio-economic factors, with a practices in one country may also be felt in other particular focus on international trade and the associated countries. A case in point are the local impacts of climate environmental effects in exporting countries. change, most severely felt in developing countries but These analyses provide valuable insight into countries’ primarily caused by (historical) greenhouse gas emissions national share in causing global environmental problems. elsewhere in the world. Furthermore, international trade has greatly increased the geographical distance Based on criteria such as responsibility, equality, capacity between production and consumption, such that the to act and the right to development, the fair contribution environmental impacts of production are not necessarily of individual countries towards achieving the global SDG felt in the countries where the goods are consumed. targets can be assessed. Scientific if ... then analyses may provide insight into the implications and efficiency of The question is how to determine individual countries’ applying these criteria to various aspects of the human fair contribution towards achieving sustainability targets environment. Such analyses have frequently been at global level, and how to take into account differences conducted to determine national greenhouse gas between countries with respect to development level and emission reduction targets for global climate change availability of resources. Paragraph 12 of the 2030 Agenda mitigation (e.g. see Den Elzen et al., 2008; Hof et al., states: ‘We reaffirm all the principles of the Rio 2012), but other global environmental problems have yet Declaration on Environment and Development, including, to be analysed in this way. inter alia, the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, as set out in principle 7 thereof.’ The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities 3.3 The need for policy coherence (CBDR) implies that developed and developing countries have different responsibilities based on differences in The SDGs comprise a broad set of goals and targets to local circumstances, economic and institutional guide the process of sustainable development. Paragraph capacities, historical responsibilities in creating the 5 of the 2030 Agenda states that the goals and targets problems in question, and specific development needs are ‘integrated and indivisible and balance the three (Pauw et al., 2014). Ultimately, the responsibility for dimensions of sustainable development’ (UN, 2015b). setting national sustainability targets lies with individual However, the interlinkages are not immediately apparent countries themselves, but they should take the principle in the list of goals and targets (ICSU and ISSC, 2015). Most of CBDR into account. goals focus on specific problems and themes related to specific stakeholders and scientific communities, without Studies in various European countries (Nykvist et al., 2013; referring to other goals. In particular, the three SDGs on Hy et al., 2015) and at EU level (Hoff et al., 2014) have natural resource management (goals 13–15) are relatively explored how to translate global environmental limits weakly connected to the other SDGs (Le Blanc, 2015). – as defined by planetary boundaries – into national targets. Planetary boundaries is a quantitative science-based Network analysis shows that several targets overlap and framework of nine Earth system processes which have that various targets refer to multiple goals (Le Blanc, boundaries beyond which there is a risk of irreversible 2015). Some targets may also complicate or conflict with and abrupt environmental change (Rockstrom et al., the realisation of other targets (e.g. see Van den Berg et 2009; Steffen et al., 2015). Together these limits define a al., 2011; PBL, 2012a). Gaining insight into the interlinkages ‘safe operating space’ for social and economic (synergies and trade-offs) between goals and targets is a development. The planetary boundaries framework was first step towards ensuring policy coherence and avoiding influential in defining the environment-related SDGs a ‘silo approach’ in the implementation. This section (Lucas et al., 2014). All nine boundaries are implicitly addresses these interlinkages and their implications for addressed by one or more goals (water, biodiversity and national implementation. climate) or targets (land use, ocean acidification, air quality, biogeochemical cycles and chemical pollution). 3.3.1 Interlinkages between the SDGs Figure 3.1 presents a visual framework for classifying and The above-mentioned studies explored the biophysical clustering the 17 SDGs and their interlinkages (Waage characteristics of specific environmental change et al., 2015).1 The inner circle contains the ‘people- processes and critical boundaries (such as for climate centred’ goals aimed to deliver individual and collective 24 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands three Figure 3.1 Framework for classification and clustering of the Sustainable Development Goals Natural Environment uction, distribution Prod y of goods and se and liver rvice de s Goal 7. Goal 8. Ensure access to Promote sustained, affordable, reliable, inclusive and sustainable sustainable and Well-being economic growth Goal 13. modern energy Goal 15. Take urgent for all Goal 1. Protect, action to End poverty in all its forms restore and combat promote climate Goal 3. Goal 11. sustainable change and Goal 6. Make cities and use of Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being its impacts Ensure availability human terrestrial and sustainable settlements ecosystems Goal 4. management of inclusive, safe, Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education water and resilient and sanitation for all sustainable Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls Goal 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries Goal 16. Goal 2. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for End hunger, achieve Goal 12. sustainable development food security and Ensure sustainable improved nutrition consumption and and promote sustainable production patterns agriculture Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization Goal 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, Goal 17. seas and marine resources Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development Source: Waage et al., 2015 Note that the goals are classified in three concentric layers, reflecting their main intended outcomes. Goal 17 is placed outside the circles, as it is an overarching goal addressing the means for global implementation of the other 16 goals. For the full wording of the goals, see Box 2.1. wellbeing through improved health and education and in Figure 3.1 has much in common with a framework promoting equitable distribution within and between proposed by Raworth (2012). The latter describes the countries (goals 1, 3–5 and 10). Achieving these goals safe and just operating space for humanity (second circle) as a relies on the realisation of goals in the second circle, doughnut-shaped area between two boundaries: a social which relate to production, distribution and delivery foundation (inner circle) and an environmental ceiling of goods and services including food, energy, clean (outer circle). water and waste management (goals 2, 6–9 and 11–12). Realisation of these second-level goals, in turn, depends The framework in Figure 3.1 provides insight into the on conditions in the biophysical systems that underpin interlinkages (synergies and trade-offs) between SDGs. sustainable development. Hence, the outer circle in For developed countries such as the Netherlands, Figure 3.1 contains three environmental goals addressing the greatest challenge lies in achieving SDGs classified in governance of natural resources and public goods such as the second circle, i.e. those aimed at natural resource use land, oceans, biodiversity and the management of climate efficiency and decoupling of economic growth from change (goals 13, 14 and 15). The framework presented environmental degradation (FES, 2015; Osborn et al., 3 Challenges for national SDG implementation | 25 three 2015). The environmental problems addressed by these SDGs and their interlinkages (UNDESA, 2015). SDGs have strong transboundary impacts, such as climate For example, PBL (2012a) concludes that a high degree of change, which disproportionally affects the poorest synergy exists between achieving people-centred targets populations of developing countries. In general, goals – such as improving access to sufficient food, safe classified within the same circle are highly synergetic. drinking water and clean energy – and targets aimed at However, many of the natural resources required for natural resource conservation and management – such as socio-economic development (inner circle) are finite and climate, air and biodiversity. Both sets of targets could be are also required for supporting vital ecosystem services achieved simultaneously through a combination of (outer circle). Therefore, goals in the second circle aim to resource efficiency improvements, better management of reduce potential trade-offs between inner-level and natural resources, and the promotion of more sustainable outer-level goals. In addition, they should address behaviour such as energy saving, waste reduction and competition for resources that are required for achieving lower meat consumption (PBL, 2012a). For example, multiple goals. better management and restoration of degraded ecosystems contribute to cleaner and more reliable water Various studies have analysed the interlinkages between supply, greater carbon sequestration and improved soil the goals and targets, either by looking at the explicit fertility, while lower meat consumption reduces the relationships between the underlying themes (Cutter pressure on agricultural resources, biodiversity and et al., 2015; ICSU and ISSC, 2015), or from a natural climate and increases global food availability. Another resources perspective (UNEP, 2015). These studies PBL study concludes that a high degree of synergy exists conclude that 12 of the 17 SDGs promote human wellbeing between efficiency improvements in the use of different through sustainable use of natural resources, and that natural resources, such as energy, land, phosphorous, 10 SDGs can only be achieved if natural resource use water and fish (Van den Berg et al., 2011). Greater efficiency is substantially improved (UNEP, 2015). efficiency in natural resource use decreases the pressure on these resources and hence increases the likelihood of Interlinkages between SDG targets may also be analysed achieving other SDG targets that depend on these by examining overlaps, as various SDG targets address resources. similar themes, but in a different context. For example, disasters and extreme events are addressed in the Both PBL studies also observed trade-offs between context of poverty eradication (target 1.5), cities targets, particularly in relation to the growing (target 11.5) and climate change (target 13.1); similarly, competition for land (between food production, biomass sustainability education is the main theme of target 4.7 production and biodiversity conservation) and the but is also addressed in the context of sustainable growing demand for water and nutrients to increase consumption and production (target 12.8) and climate agricultural productivity. For example, while biodiversity change (target 13.3). Decoupling economic growth from conservation may contribute to greater carbon environmental degradation and sustainable management sequestration, it also reduces land availability for food and efficient use of natural resources are central themes and biomass production and hence could interfere with of the environment-related SDG targets. Resource hunger reduction and renewable energy targets. efficiency and decoupling are broadly addressed under The growing demand for biofuels may further increase goal 8 on sustainable economic growth (target 8.4) and land pressure, resulting in higher food prices. more specifically under many other goals, such as for agriculture and food (target 2.4), water (target 6.4) and The Sustainability Monitor of the Netherlands 2014 (CBS, 2015) energy (target 7.3). Sustainable management and efficient concludes that the quality of life in the Netherlands is use of natural resources is broadly addressed under high, but that the way in which this quality is achieved goal 12 on sustainable consumption and production places a substantial burden on vital resources, causing (target 12.2) and more specifically under various other environmental problems at home and abroad. goals, such as for water (target 6.4), oceans, seas and The Netherlands is an open economy in which marine resources (various targets under goal 14) and international trade plays an important role. As a result, terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity (various targets the environmental impact of the Netherlands on the rest under goal 15). of the world is relatively large. An open economy also makes it easy for national production to be relocated to Scenario studies based on quantitative models may other countries. National sustainability measures, such as provide further insight into potential synergies and trade- biodiversity conservation, increased use of biofuels and offs between various goals and targets. Studies covering reduced use of agricultural nutrients, may cause local the complete set of SDGs are not yet available, but there production process to be shifted to elsewhere in the are numerous related studies describing a subset of the world, which in turn may lead to an increase in 26 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands three unsustainable agricultural activities and associated Which targets impose conditions or constraints on the environmental problems in those countries. Similarly, implementation of other targets (trade-offs)? Which stringent climate policies may induce energy-intensive targets reinforce each other (synergies)? This analysis industries to move abroad. Hence, in addition to should not be limited to targets related to the human synergies and trade-offs between various policy targets environment (as selected in Chapter 2) but cover the at the national level, ‘environmental burden shifting’ entire set of SDG targets. Furthermore, it should address from the Netherlands to other countries also has to be the interlinkages between SDG implementation within taken into account. the Netherlands, SDG implementation in other countries via Dutch development aid and trade policies, and global 3.3.2 An integrated approach SDG implementation via a revitalised global partnership The highly integrated nature of the goals and targets for sustainable development. of the 2030 Agenda calls for an integrated approach to implementation. Such an approach would enhance the An important next step is to identify existing and, potential synergy in the realisation of various SDG targets where necessary, new policy processes for implementing and reduce the negative effects of trade-offs (UNEP, the SDGs. Individual countries are developing different 2015). An integrated approach is aimed at both horizontal strategies towards national implementation (Box 3.1). policy integration – linking various themes and sectors – Paragraph 78 of the 2030 Agenda states that national as well as vertical policy integration – linking subnational, implementation ‘[can] build on existing planning instruments, national, regional (e.g. EU) and international scales. such as national development and sustainable development strategies, as appropriate.’ In the Netherlands, most One way to achieve horizontal policy integration is the environment-related SDG targets are (fully or partly) ‘nexus approach’ (Hoff, 2011; Weitz et al., 2014; UNEP, covered by existing national policy targets (see Chapter 2) 2015). A nexus approach focuses specifically on the and are being implemented through various policy interdependencies, conflicts and trade-offs in the programmes. In other words, most of the SDG targets are simultaneous realisation of different targets. not ‘new’ to Dutch policy and therefore could be This requires an in-depth analysis of interlinkages across integrated, where relevant, in existing policy processes, sectors and scales, and an identification of policy such as the Green Growth policy, the Government Vision strategies that enhance synergies across targets by on Nature, and the Future Agenda for Environment and addressing multiple natural resources or sectors at once. Sustainability. Successful integration requires a systematic analysis of these policy processes in relation Vertical policy integration entails coherence between to the SDG ambitions. This analysis should identify national and local policies, as well as international potential linkages between current policy targets and policies. In this context, footprint indicators (such as the individual SDG targets, assess the (desired) coherence ecological footprint, carbon footprint and water within and between policy processes and identify the footprint) are a useful monitoring tool for targets related roles of different actors. to the human environment. Footprint indicators relate national consumption to environmental impact at home Furthermore, the broad range of themes addressed by and abroad (e.g. climate change, biodiversity loss, water the SDGs requires that all relevant ministries are involved scarcity) by taking into account the entire production and coordinate their policies. A ‘silo’ approach or rigid chain. Not only the size, but also the effect of the distribution of goals and targets among ministries should footprint is important (Van Oorschot et al., 2013). be avoided, while synergy effects in the implementation For example, import of food products or biomass from of different targets should be promoted. Targets for areas without food shortage or water scarcity has a agriculture, industry or cities, for example, cannot be smaller impact than import from areas where the viewed in isolation from targets for water, energy, opposite is the case, and hence should be weighted biodiversity, climate and health. Coordination, differently. The concept of footprints makes businesses knowledge sharing and mutual learning between and consumers more aware of their responsibilities in ministries will be crucial for successful implementation the production–consumption chain. Furthermore, (Weitz et al., 2015). The key question is where the the concept offers insight into the scale and magnitude of responsibility lies for ensuring policy coherence. the problems to be addressed. Achieving policy coherence hence requires a context- 3.4 The ‘energetic society’ specific and systematic analysis of interlinkages between targets across themes, sectors and scales, addressing Increasingly, citizens, businesses, city councils and questions such as: Which targets are interdependent? NGOs are launching their own sustainability initiatives. 3 Challenges for national SDG implementation | 27 three 3.1 Implementation of the 2030 Agenda in Germany and Sweden Various European countries have already been working hard on strategies for integrating the 2030 Agenda into national policy agendas and determining the most appropriate implementation mechanisms (e.g. see Lepuschitz, 2015). Here we focus on Germany and Sweden, since these countries are following widely different approaches. Like several other countries, Germany decided to use its current national sustainable development strategy as the most important framework for SDG implementation. The German Council for Sustainable Development (RNE) has been asked to advise the government on how to align the current strategy with the SDGs. They will assess to what extent the SDGs are already covered by existing sustainability targets and indicators and identify the gaps to be addressed. In 2014, a number of dialogue workshops were held with civil society organisations (see also Lepuschitz, 2015). Sweden engaged civil society organisations, businesses, academia, government agencies and ministries in a broad dialogue on the proposed SDGs. The Swedish Government recently relaunched its Policy for Global Development (PGD) agenda, considering it one of the most important instruments for SDG implementation. The PGD agenda – which was officially adopted in 2003, but lost momentum a few years after its launch – lays down the principle that all government policies should contribute to fair and sustainable global development. Relevant ministries have been requested to develop action plans on how to address the SDGs based on a PGD approach (see also Weitz et al., 2015). This phenomenon has been called ‘energetic society’ the national vision, now that the SDGs have been agreed. (Hajer, 2011) or ‘participation society’ (Van Houweling Similar efforts are taking place in other countries such as et al., 2014) (see Box 3.2). To govern and tap into the Germany, where dialogue workshops were held with civil potential of the energetic society, governments should society organisations. change their role and focus more on collaboration, demonstrating ambition, providing guidance, promoting Involving the energetic society in developing a national initiatives and facilitating innovation (Van der Steen vision will create commitment and motivate and inspire et al., 2015). By translating the SDGs to a clear and all parties (public and private) to take action. Recent powerful national vision, governments can further inspire research on sustainable behaviour among Dutch citizens and motivate citizens and other actors to undertake shows that people are more likely to adopt sustainable initiatives in their own field of work, interest or expertise. practices if they actively participate and have some This section discusses how to involve and make use of the knowledge about international development cooperation energetic society in national SDG implementation. (Carabain et al., 2012; Boonstoppel and Van Elfrinkhof, 2013). 3.4.1 Promoting civic participation and developing a shared vision Based on the 2030 Agenda, governments could develop The SDGs provide an overarching long-term vision on an overarching long-term vision for sustainable sustainable development and could therefore serve as development, to define the national level of ambition and a ‘spot on the horizon’ for the energetic society. For this outline how policy could address the SDG targets. Such a to happen the SDGs must first become more widely vision would provide a form of coordination, offering known to the general public and be translated into guidance to all parties as to where they could focus their national policy targets. Governments could communicate efforts and investment decisions (Van der Steen et al., and support the 2030 Agenda by actively involving the 2015). Moreover, with a clear and appealing long-term energetic society in developing a national vision, which vision, governments may inspire and motivate the links targets to implementation strategies. In 2013, energetic society to actively contribute to the several consultations took place with various groups implementation of the 2030 Agenda. Since the 2030 within Dutch society to provide input for the UN High Agenda is not legally binding, it can only be effective if all Level Panel on the Post-2015 Development Agenda parties (including citizens, NGOs and businesses) are (the UN Panel that formulated the SDGs) (NCDO, 2013). aware that they can contribute and see that their Such consultations may also be held to further develop contributions are being acknowledged. 28 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands three 3.2 What do we mean by the ‘energetic society’? Citizens, city councils, businesses and NGOs are increasingly developing their own sustainability initiatives. These actions are not initiated by the central government but by society itself. Examples include businesses adopting sustainable production processes, citizens organising their own (renewable) energy supply and changing their consumption patterns, and city councils facilitating sustainable neighbourhood initiatives and urban development through participatory processes. This new role of society in the public domain has been described as the ‘energetic society’ (Hajer, 2011) or ‘participation society’ (Van Houweling et al., 2014). The rise of the energetic society is partly a response to the changing role of government, both nationally and internationally, and raises the question how governments should respond in turn to this new development (Hajer, 2011; Hajer et al., 2015). An energetic society requires a government that is able to combine traditional governmental roles (lawful, performing) with new roles (networking, participatory and facilitating) (Van der Steen et al., 2015). 3.4.2 Building on and learning from ongoing relatively small, and that their overall effectiveness is initiatives unclear (Bouma and Berkhout, 2015; FES, 2015; Pattberg Businesses, civil society organisations, city councils and Widerberg, 2015). A study on the performance of and citizens are increasingly working together in multi- national partnerships reached similar conclusions stakeholder partnerships, such as the Green Deals2 and (Van Tulder et al., 2014). Hence, when considering the public–private partnerships (PPPs) for development partnerships as important ‘means of implementation’ and sustainability in the Netherlands. The 2030 Agenda of the SDGs, uncertainty about their effectiveness should emphasises the importance of partnerships for realising be taken into account. the SDGs, particularly in goal 17 (‘Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnership Monitoring and reporting of progress has been identified for sustainable development’). As part of this goal, target as a key building block of partnership success (Pattberg 17.16 calls to encourage and promote multi-stakeholder and Widerberg, 2015). The 2030 Agenda calls for a robust, partnerships, while target 17.17 calls to build on the participatory and transparent follow-up and review experience of existing partnerships. framework to promote accountability. Accountability not only applies to governments, but also to businesses and In the Netherlands, private sector parties, NGOs and other organisations playing a role in SDG implementation universities, together with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, (universality). Given the large number of initiatives in have drawn up the ‘Post-2015 Charter’: a joint statement the energetic society, monitoring progress is clearly presenting a compelling vision on the private sector’s important, but also complex, as it should assess whether contribution to sustainable development. The Charter the cumulative effect of all these efforts is sufficient for calls on the signatories to intensify existing efforts and target achievement. Various actors within society, the develop concrete initiatives within the framework of the private sector in particular, have already started to report 2030 Agenda. The aim of the Charter is to bring parties on their sustainability efforts. The SDGs may serve as together, to create a platform for sharing success stories, benchmarks for actors to evaluate their actions (see to support partnerships and to promote common Chapter 4 for further details). interests. So far, the primary focus of the Charter appears to be on implementation abroad, paying less attention to In summary, the energetic society requires an active implementation within the Netherlands. government that is able to make use of society’s innovative potential by developing a shared vision, Partnerships may serve as a bridge between policy and by encouraging initiatives, by accelerating change and by society, facilitate learning and knowledge sharing monitoring progress. between public and private actors, and provide new possibilities for financing sustainable development. Governments may facilitate existing partnerships and 3.5 Conclusions learn from them for further policy development. At the same time, it should be recognised that partnerships are National implementation of the 2030 Agenda requires a no panacea. Research on the performance of translation of the SDGs to national ambitions, which are international multi-stakeholder partnerships shows that to be realised through existing and, where necessary, their contribution to ‘closing the implementation gap’ is new policy processes and strategies. By translating 3 Challenges for national SDG implementation | 29 three the SDGs to their national context, countries address policy, the Government Vision on Nature, and the Future their responsibility towards solving global problems. Agenda for Environment and Sustainability. This requires However, governments cannot do this alone. The scope a systematic analysis of these policy processes in the light and complexity of the 2030 Agenda requires broad of the 2030 Agenda. participation of all parties in society, both for defining and implementing the national ambition level. Policy coherence is crucial for successful implementation Governments should ensure that the 2030 Agenda of national ambitions. The highly interrelated nature of becomes known to the general public, take a leading role the SDG goals and targets requires an integrated in defining national ambitions, ensure policy coherence approach, aiming for both horizontal policy integration across themes and between subnational, national and – linking various themes and sectors – and vertical policy international policies, encourage sustainability initiatives, integration – linking subnational, national, regional and facilitate innovation within the context of the SDGs. (e.g. EU) and international scales. The Netherlands is an A clear and powerful long-term vision, developed by open economy in which international trade plays an governments together with actors within society, would important role. In addition to synergies and trade-offs provide a form of coordination, offering guidance to between various policy targets at the national level, all parties as to where they could focus their efforts ‘environmental burden shifting’ from the Netherlands to and investment decisions. Partnerships may serve as a other countries also has to be taken into account. bridge between policy and society, facilitate learning and The latter is not explicitly included in the 2030 Agenda. knowledge sharing between public and private actors, Footprint indicators, which relate national consumption and provide new possibilities for financing sustainable to environmental impact at home and abroad, may be development. At the same time, it should be recognised included in a national monitoring framework that partnerships are no panacea. When considering (see Chapter 4) to provide insight into environmental partnerships as important ‘means of implementation’ burden shifting, and may also contribute to assessing of SDGs, uncertainty about their effectiveness should be individual countries’ fair share in the global sustainability taken into account. effort. Furthermore, the broad range of themes addressed by the 2030 Agenda requires that all relevant Defining the national level of ambition requires a ministries are involved and coordinate their policies. translation of the global SDG targets to national policy A ‘silo’ approach or rigid distribution of goals and targets targets, guided by the global level of ambition but taking among ministries should be avoided, while synergy into account national circumstances. Each problem or effects in the implementation of different targets should theme addressed by SDG targets has to be translated into be promoted. The key question is who will be responsible a set of national policy targets that cover the most for implementation of specific targets and where the important elements of the global targets and are relevant responsibility lies for ensuring policy coherence. in the national context. For SDG targets aimed at decoupling economic growth from environmental degradation, it is important to establish what level of Notes absolute decoupling would be sufficient to achieve the targets in question. The final definition of the national 1 Some Goals may be classified at more than one level. For level of ambition is a political question. Based on criteria example, Goal 2 includes poverty-related targets, such as such as national responsibility, equal rights, historical reducing hunger and malnutrition, as well as production- responsibility, sovereignty and the right to development, related targets, such as promoting sustainable agriculture. scientific if ... then analyses could help to determine The same applies to Goals 6 (Water) and 7 (Energy). Since individual countries’ fair share in the global SDG our study concerns a developed country (the Netherlands) challenge for different aspects of the human where production-related targets are more relevant than environment. The final choices are to be made by poverty-related targets, we opted to classify Goals 2, 6 and politicians, in close consultation with different groups 7 in the second layer, following Waage et al. (2015). within society, such as NGOs, businesses, local councils 2 http://www.greendeals.nl/english/ and scientists. The next step is to identify existing and, where necessary, new policy processes for implementation of national policy targets and ambitions. Many of the goals and targets in the 2030 Agenda are not new to Dutch policy and therefore could be integrated, where relevant, in existing policy processes, such as the Green Growth 30 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands four National SDG monitoring and accountability We also encourage Member States to conduct regular and inclusive reviews of progress at the national and subnational levels which are country-led and country-driven. Such reviews should draw on contributions from indigenous peoples, civil society, the private sector and other stakeholders, in line with national circumstances, policies and priorities. National parliaments as well as other institutions can also supply these processes The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; Paragraph 79 4.1 Introduction development as operationalised by the agreed goals and targets. This insight contributes to making society more Monitoring sustainable development can promote aware of sustainable versus unsustainable development, effective national SDG implementation. The 2030 Agenda and hence could motivate citizens and businesses to calls on governments to set up review processes to track change behaviour and take action. It may also encourage national progress and contribute to reviews at regional citizens to call on businesses and government authorities and global levels. Where possible, these national reviews to step up their efforts, for example, by introducing should build on existing platforms and processes. corporate sustainability reporting. The latter increases In the Netherlands, sustainability reporting is currently corporate responsibility and transparency (see also provided by the Sustainability Monitor of the Netherlands Section 3.4 on the ‘energetic society’). (CBS, 2015). This biennial monitoring report keeps track of sustainability in the Netherlands using a broad set of Countries and businesses are using a range of different indicators for a range of sustainability themes, including, methodologies for sustainability reporting. A major but not limited to, environmental quality. challenge is to align the indicator sets used, both between businesses and between businesses and In this chapter we focus on the role of national monitoring governments (Van der Esch and Steurer, 2014). Various of SDGs for policy and society. In Section 4.2, we discuss projects are currently addressing this challenge. the importance of monitoring for effective The Measure What Matters project of the Green Economy implementation of the SDGs. As this discussion shows, Coalition (which includes NGOs, research institutes and an important question for the design and structure of a UN organisations) is aimed at aligning global, national national monitoring report is what role such report is to and business indicator sets.1 The Global Reporting play: should it only describe the current state and trends Initiative (GRI) has developed sustainability reporting or also provide policy input and contribute to guidelines for businesses, governments and other accountability? In Section 4.3, we examine what role the organisations. Together with the World Business Council existing Sustainability Monitor of the Netherlands could play on Sustainable Development and the UN Global in reporting on national SDG implementation. Compact, GRI recently published a first version of the SDG Compass for Businesses (GRI et al., 2015). This Compass shows businesses how to contribute to realising the SDGs 4.2 Various functions of monitoring and how to report and communicate their progress. Finally, Statistics Netherlands, GRI and the Sustainability Monitoring combines measuring trends with tracking Consortium published an overview and comparison of progress. In the case of the SDGs, monitoring should public and corporate sustainability reporting systems provide insight in the progress made on sustainable (CBS et al., 2014). They conclude that alignment and 32 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands four harmonisation of these systems is both possible and primarily the task of national governments to select the necessary, and that the 2030 Agenda provides significant indicators to be monitored for national SDG reporting. momentum for this – inevitably, long-term – process. Obviously, to ensure broad support for this national indicator set, various groups within society should be In addition to the general purpose of ensuring involved in the indicator selection process, including transparency and providing information on relevant NGOs, employers’ organisations, consumers’ developments, monitoring goes hand in hand with organisations, local councils, businesses and academics. tracking target performance, and as such can serve various policy objectives. For example, indicator data 4.2.1 Reporting on progress may be used for policy adjustment, policy comparison, One of the basic objectives or functions of monitoring is learning and policy evaluation. As discussed in the to report the current state of affairs: what is the current following sections, these various objectives of monitoring level of sustainable development? The underlying key will influence the design of the monitoring framework. question is ‘Are we heading in the right direction’? Answering the latter question not only requires Independent of its specific objectives, monitoring of the a description but also an interpretation of current SDGs requires a set of indicators relevant to the SDG developments: what does it mean for sustainable targets in question. Although the global SDGs do provide development when one indicator value increases and starting points for indicator selection, they also leave another indicator value decreases or stays the same? ample room for interpretation and therefore cannot be translated directly into a set of indicators. Indicators for The current level of sustainable development can be SDG monitoring at the global level are being developed evaluated based on insights into current trends and/or by by the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on SDG indicators comparing national developments to developments in (IAEG-SDGs) and are expected to be available by spring surrounding countries. Obviously, the latter comparison 2016. In addition to developing global indicators for the would require alignment of indicator sets between global SDG targets, the SDGs also have to be translated countries, not only in terms of the indicators selected for into national policy targets and indicators. In this individual SDG targets but also in terms of their exact translation process countries can take national definition. For example, should the indicator for energy circumstances into account, which implies that national saving be defined in relative terms (percentage Petajoules indicator sets may differ from the global indicator set. saved) or absolute terms (total Petajoules saved)? And what is the baseline year? Should this indicator cover To illustrate the challenge of selecting relevant indicators, total energy consumption or only fossil energy let us consider again the SDG target for sustainable food consumption? And should it include fuel used as production (see Section 3.2.1). To define relevant feedstock (e.g. for production of plastics)? indicators for this target, it first has to be clear what is understood by sustainable food production and how this Given that there are 169 SDG targets and hence a broad concept should be operationalised. Is it about multitude of relevant indicators, the question also arises efficient use of natural resources, improving farmers’ how to derive a clear and comprehensive picture of the incomes, reducing antibiotic use in livestock to address extent to which a country is developing sustainably. public health concerns, or minimising environmental Is there a way to summarise and aggregate all this pollution caused by food production? If targets are set for information into a limited number of ‘headline the relevant sub-themes of sustainable food production, indicators’? For example, the Sustainability Monitor of the then it is possible to define a comprehensive indicator set Netherlands uses colour coding and pie charts to visualise for the theme as a whole. National assessment agencies indicator information, providing a concise overview of the (in the Netherlands: PBL Netherlands Environmental most important trends (see Section 4.3). Assessment Agency, CPB Netherlands Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis and SCP Netherlands Institute 4.2.2 Accountability for Social Research) could contribute to indicator For policy, the relevance of monitoring increases selection based on their knowledge of system considerably if the observed trends are also explained. interactions. Hence, in addition to simply describing and interpreting the current situation and trends, the next step is to Furthermore, national statistical bureaus are obvious provide insight into the causal factors underlying the partners because of their expertise in data collection and developments observed. From a policy perspective it is analysis. Ultimately, the national indicator set will reflect also relevant to provide insight into how current policies what society wants to achieve, and these priorities may have contributed to the trends observed. The latter helps differ significantly between countries. Hence, it is to answer the question ‘Are we on the right track?’ and 4 National SDG monitoring and accountability | 33 four forms the basis for accountability with regard to current indicators describing environmental efficiency, policy policy effectiveness and progress made. This insight response and economic opportunities (OECD, 2011). cannot be derived from statistical data alone, but also requires causal analysis. 4.2.3 Assessing target performance Explaining indicator trends as discussed in the previous A useful approach for gaining insight into causal factors section provides an answer to the question ‘Are we on underlying indicator developments is the DPSIR the right track’? The follow-up question is ‘Are we doing framework, where DPSIR stands for Driving forces- enough?’ The latter has two dimensions: it deals both Pressure-State-Impact-Response. In the case of with the question whether current policies are effective environmental indicators, driving forces for example and efficient, and with the question whether national include general economic trends, energy consumption policy targets are expected to be realised. The first and investments. These factors exert pressure on the question can be answered based on ex post analyses, environment (e.g. by increasing emissions of polluting the outcome of which may be used to adjust policies substances), which in turn leads to changes in the state of where necessary. The second question requires ex the environment. These changes in environmental quality ante policy evaluation, i.e. an analysis of the projected have an impact, for example on public health and effects of current policy and economic and social trends ecosystems. If this impact is undesirable, it will elicit a on future developments. Lessons learned from ex post response from society and policy, which will feed back on analyses could be included in this analysis. In the case one or more steps in the chain. For example, policy may of environmental indicators, ex ante analyses provide be aimed at changing the driving forces to indirectly insight into expected future environmental quality reduce impact; or it may change the causal relationship and environmental pressure (e.g. future emissions). between driving forces and pressure (e.g. by setting Comparing these projections with national policy targets emission requirements for vehicles and installations) and will provide an answer to the question ‘Are we doing hence reduce impact down the line. Driving forces may enough’? (see also Chapter 2.4 on target performance). also be changed by initiatives from society, for example, businesses investing in energy efficiency or households The question whether a country ‘is doing enough’ to participating in renewable energy collectives. These address the global sustainable development challenge examples illustrate that insight into the DPSIR chain is has two dimensions. Answering this question requires essential to understanding and explaining indicator both insight into the performance on national targets trends. This insight cannot be derived from statistical derived from the global SDGs, and insight into whether data alone, but also requires model analyses to these national targets represent a fair share in the global investigate the relationships within the DPSIR chain. sustainability effort (see Section 3.2.3). One of the challenges is to include societal dynamics into these analyses (see also Section 3.4 on the energetic society). 4.3 The Sustainability Monitor of A point of concern is that changes in environmental the Netherlands quality and associated effects on public health and ecosystems are often slow to become apparent. This is The Sustainability Monitor of the Netherlands (MDN) assesses not only due to the fact that, often, changes in the state of sustainable development in the Netherlands, environmental quality happen very slowly (e.g. climate based on a broad indicator set (CBS, 2015). First published change is a gradual process taking place over many in 2009, with follow-up reports in 2011 and 2014, the decades), but also because human systems are relatively MDN is a joint product of Statistics Netherlands (CBS) and inert. For example, building regulations aimed at the three national assessment agencies (PBL Netherlands reducing energy use do not immediately result in lower Environmental Assessment Agency, CPB Netherlands household energy consumption, because the housing Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis and SCP Netherlands stock changes only very slowly. The consequence of this Institute for Social Research). The MDN builds on the slow response is that ‘effect indicators’ will measure Brundtland definition of sustainable development, which hardly any progress, even though policy and society are states that development is sustainable if it meets the taking considerable effort (e.g. emission regulations, needs of the present without compromising the ability energy-saving investments) to address the problem in of future generations – both here and in other parts of question. To capture these efforts, ‘secondary’ indicators the world – to meet their own needs. This definition is are needed. For this reason, the OECD indicator set for also reflected in the academic literature on monitoring tracking green growth includes not only indicators for sustainable development (Stiglitz Commission, 2009; monitoring the current state of resources, but also UNECE, 2014). 34 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands four Table 4.1 The three dashboards and corresponding themes of the Sustainability Monitor of the Netherlands 2014 (CBS, 2015). Note: some themes are measured by more than one indicator Quality of Life (‘Here and now’) Resources (‘Later’) Netherlands in the world (‘Elsewhere’) Well-being and material welfare Natural capital Environment and natural resources Well-being Land Energy Material welfare Natural environment Raw materials Climate Climate Personal characteristics Energy Health Soil quality Trade and aid Housing Water quality Aid Education Air quality Trade Leisure Mobility Human capital Livelihood Labour Pensions Health Education Living conditions Safety Social capital Inequality Social participation and trust Social participation and trust Institutions Institutions Natural environment Economic capital Air quality Physical capital Knowledge Debt To translate the Brundtland definition into a set of Indicators for the Resources dashboard were selected indicators, the concept of sustainable development has based primarily on the ‘capitals approach’. This approach to be operationalised first: what exactly should we states that different kinds of capital are required to meet conserve for future generations, here and elsewhere? human needs, and that quality of life depends on the In absence of a policy-level operationalisation of this extent to which these needs are met. Both material and broad sustainability concept in the Netherlands, it was immaterial assets are taken into account. The MDN decided to structure the indicator set of the MDN around distinguishes four types of capital: economic capital three themes, or ‘dashboards’: (including the supply of physical capital goods, but also 1. Quality of life in the Netherlands (‘Here and now’) knowledge), natural capital (such as energy supplies, 2. Resources (‘Later’). This category relates to the biodiversity and clean drinking water), human capital opportunities for future generations to achieve their (labour force, education level) and social capital (social welfare goals, based on resource availability. participation, trust in institutions). 3. The Netherlands in the world (‘Elsewhere’). This c­ ategory relates to the impact of the pursuit of Although the selection of indicators for the first two welfare in the Netherlands on the rest of the world. dashboards (Quality of life and Resources) is primarily based on academic research and data availability, it also takes Given this structure, the next question is which issues and into account relevant themes addressed by citizens, related indicators should be included in each of these policymakers and politicians in the public debate on dashboards. Quality of life, for example, is a broad sustainable development (CBS et al., 2009). concept, the definition of which will vary between generations. Based on extensive literature reviews on The third dashboard (The Netherlands in the world) consists quality of life, a number of issues that are generally of indicators providing insight into the environmental considered relevant were selected for the first dashboard burden imposed by the Netherlands on the rest of the of the MDN. In addition, the criterion of data availability world. This dashboard also includes indicators of financial played an important role for indicator selection for this aid for poverty reduction in developing countries, dashboard. to provide insight into the relationship between the 4 National SDG monitoring and accountability | 35 four Netherlands and the poorest countries of the world. 4.4 Conclusions After all, poverty reduction is an important aspect of sustainable development as defined by the Brundtland A national SDG monitoring report for the Netherlands definition. does not have to be developed from scratch, but could build on the structure of the present MDN. If the ambition In total, the MDN describes 58 indicators, including is to use the SDGs as an integrating framework for 29 indicators in the Quality of life dashboard, 18 indicators national policymaking, an option to consider is to base in the Resources dashboard and 11 indicators in the the MDN primarily on SDG indicators. In that case the Netherlands in the world dashboard. These indicators cover current structure of the MDN would have to be modified. a range of themes (Table 4.1). Whether or not to keep the present MDN indicators and Green Growth indicators would then be a topic of Without making an exhaustive comparison, we observe discussion. However, making the SDG indicators ‘leading’ that the MDN covers many of the SDGs (including for the structure of the MDN would be in disagreement numerous SDG targets for sustainability domains other with the academic literature on measuring sustainable than the environmental domain), but definitely not the development in which the trichotomy ‘here and now’, entire set of 169 SDG targets. Furthermore, we observe ‘later’ and ‘elsewhere’ is a central concept. that the organising principle of the MDN indicators differs from the SDGs, as the latter consist of goals and A second question relevant for the design of a national underlying targets. The task of the Inter-Agency and SDG monitoring report is what role or function such Expert group (IAEG-SDGs), in addition to defining an report is to fulfil. Will its primary goal be ‘basic indicator set for global SDG monitoring, is to develop a monitoring’, describing trends in indicators related to clear framework to organise these global indicators. national SDG targets? Or will it also be used for evaluation, serving as a vehicle for providing The MDN shows the trend in each indicator from the year accountability with regard to the societal and policy 2000 onwards. It also compares national indicator scores developments underlying the trends observed? In the to those of other European countries. Hence, the main latter case, simply describing indicator trends is not objective of the MDN is to describe trends, not to enough; insight into the causal factors underlying these interpret them (see Section 4.2). However, the MDN does trends should also be provided. Finally, if the ambition is include a chapter with brief analyses of the developments to assess to what extent the national SDG targets will be in 14 domains (well-being; climate and energy; local achieved, ex ante policy evaluation would be required. environmental quality; biodiversity and landscape; For most of the environment-related SDG targets the health; housing and living environment; mobility; information required for such analyses can be derived security; social participation and trust; education and from the Assessment of the Dutch Human Environment (PBL, knowledge; material welfare and the economy; financial 2015). sustainability; trade, aid and raw materials; and inequality). For some of these domains it also discusses relevant policy targets and the extent to which these are Note being achieved. This information is derived from other reports. With regard to the environment-related policy 1 http://measurewhatmatters.info/ targets, an important source of information is the Assessment of the Dutch Human Environment 2014 (PBL, 2015). At the request of policymakers, the 2014 edition of the MDN also includes a chapter on Green Growth. Green Growth was one of the central themes of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012 (Rio+20) and the Dutch cabinet addressed this theme in a letter to parliament in 2013, proposing a set of key indicators for Green Growth (EZ and IenM, 2013). The MDN describes the trends in these key indicators and compares the scores to those of other European countries. Similar to the MDN indicators, trends in each of the Green Growth indicators are briefly discussed, but this discussion does not include a comprehensive policy analysis. 36 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands References Bizikova L, Pinter L, Huppe G and Schandl H. 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Table A.1 Selected goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda, related current national (Dutch), European (EU) and global (UN) agreements, and the policy challenge with regard to translating global targets to the Dutch context Existing policy agreements and targets Policy challenge for the # Goal # Target National European Global Netherlands 1 End poverty in all its forms 1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in - - Sendai Framework SDG target partly covered by everywhere vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and for Disaster Risk existing Dutch policy targets: vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other Reduction Reconsider target horizon and economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters 2015–2030 target level for existing targets and define new targets where needed. 2 End hunger, achieve food 2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems - Nitrates Directive, - SDG target partly covered by security and improved and implement resilient agricultural practices that Water Framework existing Dutch policy targets: nutrition and promote increase productivity and production, that help maintain Directive, Birds Reconsider target horizon and sustainable agriculture ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to Directive, Habitats target level for existing targets climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and Directive, NEC and define new targets where other disasters and that progressively improve land and Directive needed. soil quality 2.5 By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, - - International Treaty SDG target fully covered by cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals on Plant Genetic existing Dutch policy targets: and their related wild species, including through soundly Resources for Food Reconsider target horizon and managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the and Agriculture, target level. national, regional and international levels, and promote Strategic Plan access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising for Biodiversity from the utilization of genetic resources and associated 2011–2020, Nagoya traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing Existing policy agreements and targets Policy challenge for the # Goal # Target National European Global Netherlands 3 Ensure healthy lives and 3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and Van Afval naar NEC Directive, Air Gothenburg SDG target fully covered by promote well-being for all illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil Grondstof [from Quality Directive, Protocol Basel, existing Dutch policy targets: at all stages pollution and contamination waste to resource], Water Framework Rotterdam Reconsider target horizon and Bodem-convenant Directive, Nitrates and Stockholm target level. [Soil covenant], Directive 7th conventions National Environment Water Plan 2, Action Programme National Waste Management Plan 4 Ensure inclusive and 4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge - - - SDG target not covered by equitable quality and skills needed to promote sustainable development, existing Dutch policy targets: education and promote including, among others, through education for Define new targets where lifelong learning sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, needed. opportunities for all human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development 6 Ensure availability and 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, National Water Water Framework Basel, Rotterdam SDG target fully covered by sustainable management eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous Plan 2 Directive and Stockholm existing Dutch policy targets: of water and sanitation chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of conventions Reconsider target horizon and for all untreated wastewater and substantially increasing target level. recycling and safe reuse globally 6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency Nationaal Water Water Framework - SDG target fully covered by across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals Plan 2, Delta Directive existing Dutch policy targets: and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and Programme Reconsider target horizon and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from target level. water scarcity 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources National Water - - SDG target fully covered by management at all levels, including through Plan 2 existing Dutch policy targets: transboundary cooperation as appropriate Reconsider target horizon and target level. 6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, Natuurpact [nature Water Framework Ramsar convention, SDG target fully covered by including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers covenant] Directive, Birds Strategic Plan for existing Dutch policy targets: and lakes Directive, Habitats Biodiversity Reconsider target horizon and Directive, EU 2011–2020 target level. Biodiversity Strategy Appendix A | 43 Table A.1 (continued) Existing policy agreements and targets Policy challenge for the # Goal # Target National European Global Netherlands 7 Ensure access to 7.2 By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable Energie Akkoord Renewable Energy - SDG target fully covered by affordable, reliable, energy in the global energy mix [energy Directive existing Dutch policy targets: sustainable and modern agreement] Reconsider target horizon and energy for all target level. 7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy Energie Akkoord Energy-Efficiency - SDG target fully covered by efficiency [energy Directive existing Dutch policy targets: agreement] Reconsider target horizon and target level. 8 Promote sustained, 8.4 Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource Van Afval Naar Roadmap to a 10-year framework SDG target partly covered by inclusive and sustainable efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour Grondstof Resource Efficient of programmes existing Dutch policy targets: economic growth, full and to decouple economic growth from environmental [from waste to Europe on sustainable Reconsider target horizon and 44 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands productive employment degradation, in accordance with the 10-year framework resource] consumption and target level for existing targets and decent work for all of programmes on sustainable consumption and production and define new targets where production, with developed countries taking the lead needed. 9 Build resilient 9.1 Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient National Electricity - SDG target partly covered by infrastructure, promote infrastructure, including regional and transborder adaptation interconnection existing Dutch policy targets: inclusive and sustainable infrastructure, to support economic development strategy, Delta target Reconsider target horizon and industrialization and and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and programme target level for existing targets foster innovation equitable access for all and define new targets where needed. 9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries Van Afval Naar Roadmap to a Gothenburg SDG target partly covered by to make them sustainable, with increased resource- Grondstof Resource Efficient Protocol Basel, existing Dutch policy targets: use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and [from waste to Europe, NEC Rotterdam Reconsider target horizon and environmentally sound technologies and industrial resource] Directive, Air and Stockholm target level for existing targets processes, with all countries taking action in accordance Quality Directive conventions and define new targets where with their respective capabilities needed. 11 Make cities and human 11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and National Floods Directive Sendai Framework SDG target partly covered by settlements inclusive, the number of people affected and substantially decrease adaptation for Disaster Risk existing Dutch policy targets: safe, resilient and the direct economic losses relative to global gross strategy, National Reduction Reconsider target horizon and sustainable domestic product caused by disasters, including water- Water Plan 2, Delta 2015–2030 target level for existing targets related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and Programme and define new targets where people in vulnerable situations needed. 11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental Van Afval Naar Roadmap to a Gothenburg SDG target partly covered by impact of cities, including by paying special attention to Grondstof Resource Efficient Protocol Basel, existing Dutch policy targets: air quality and municipal and other waste management [from waste to Europe, NEC Rotterdam Reconsider target horizon and resource], Directive, Air and Stockholm target level for existing targets Landelijk Quality Directive, conventions and define new targets where afvalbeheerplan Water Framework needed. [national waste Directive, REACH, management plan], Renewable Energy National Water Directive, Energy Plan 2, Efficiency Directive Energie Akkoord [energy agreement] Existing policy agreements and targets Policy challenge for the # Goal # Target National European Global Netherlands 12 Ensure sustainable 12.1 Implement the 10-year framework of programmes on - - 10-year framework SDG target partly covered by consumption and sustainable consumption and production, all countries of programmes existing Dutch policy targets: production patterns taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, on sustainable Reconsider target horizon and taking into account the development and capabilities of consumption and target level for existing targets developing countries production and define new targets where needed. 12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and Van Afval Naar Roadmap to Strategic Plan for SDG target partly covered by efficient use of natural resource Grondstof a Resource Biodiversity existing Dutch policy targets: [from waste to Efficient Europe, 2011–2020 Reconsider target horizon and resource] EU Biodiversity target level for existing targets Strategy and define new targets where needed. 12.3 By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail Beleidsbrief Roadmap to a - SDG target fully covered by and consumer levels and reduce food losses along duurzame voedsel- Resource Efficient existing Dutch policy targets: production and supply chains, including post-harvest productie Europe Reconsider target horizon and losses [policy letter on target level. sustainable food production] 12.4 By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management Landelijk Registration, Basel, Rotterdam SDG target fully covered by of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in afvalbeheer-plan Evaluation and and Stockholm existing Dutch policy targets: accordance with agreed international frameworks, and [national waste- Authorization conventions Reconsider target horizon and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in management plan] of Chemicals target level. order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health (REACH) and the environment 12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through Van Afval Naar - - SDG target fully covered by prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse Grondstof existing Dutch policy targets: [from waste to Reconsider target horizon and resource], target level. Landelijk afvalbeheerplan [national waste management plan] 12.6 Encourage companies, especially large and transnational - Directive on - SDG target fully covered by companies, to adopt sustainable practices and to disclosure of existing Dutch policy targets: integrate sustainability information into their reporting non-financial Reconsider target horizon and cycle and diversity target level. information Appendix A | 45 Table A.1 (continued) Existing policy agreements and targets Policy challenge for the # Goal # Target National European Global Netherlands 12.7 Promote public procurement practices that are - Public Procurement - SDG target fully covered by sustainable, in accordance with national policies and for a better existing Dutch policy targets: priorities environment Reconsider target horizon and target level. 12.8 By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant - - - SDG target not covered by information and awareness for sustainable development existing Dutch policy targets: and lifestyles in harmony with nature Define new targets where needed. 13 Take urgent action to 13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate- National Floods Directive Sendai Framework SDG target partly covered by combat climate change related hazards and natural disasters in all countries adaptation for Disaster Risk existing Dutch policy targets: and its impacts a strategy, Reduction Reconsider target horizon and 46 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands National Water 2015–2030 target level for existing targets Plan 2, and define new targets where Delta Programme needed. Klimaatagenda [climate agenda] 13.2 Integrate climate change measures into national policies, Klimaatagenda ETS Directive, United Nations SDG target fully covered by strategies and planning [climate agenda], EU Effort sharing Framework existing Dutch policy targets: Energie Akkoord decision, Convention on Reconsider target horizon and [energy Renewable Energy Climate Change target level. agreement] Directive, (UNFCCC) Energy Efficiency Directive 13.3 Improve education, awareness-raising and human and - - - SDG target not covered by institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, existing Dutch policy targets: adaptation, impact reduction and early warning Define new targets where needed. 14 Conserve and sustainably 14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution - Marine Strategy United Nations SDG target fully covered by use the oceans, seas and of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, Framework Convention on the existing Dutch policy targets: marine resources for including marine debris and nutrient pollution Directive, EU Law of the Sea, Reconsider target horizon and sustainable development Biodiversity Strategic Plan for target level. Strategy Biodiversity 2011–2020 14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and - Water Framework Strategic Plan for SDG target partly covered by coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, Directive, EU Biodiversity existing Dutch policy targets: including by strengthening their resilience, and take Biodiversity 2011–2020 Reconsider target horizon and action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and Strategy target level for existing targets productive oceans and define new targets where needed. Existing policy agreements and targets Policy challenge for the # Goal # Target National European Global Netherlands 14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, - - Strategic Plan for SDG target partly covered by including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all Biodiversity existing Dutch policy targets: levels 2011–2020 Reconsider target horizon and target level for existing targets and define new targets where needed. 14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end - EU Biodiversity Convention on the SDG target fully covered by overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing Strategy, Common International Trade existing Dutch policy targets: and destructive fishing practices and implement science- Fisheries Policy in Endangered Reconsider target horizon and based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks Species of Wild target level. in the shortest time feasible, at least to levels that can Flora and Fauna produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by (CITES), Strategic their biological characteristics Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and - Birds Directive, Ramsar convention, SDG target fully covered by marine areas, consistent with national and international Habitats Directive, Strategic Plan for existing Dutch policy targets: law and based on the best available scientific information EU Biodiversity Biodiversity Reconsider target horizon and Strategy 2011–2020 target level. 14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies - EU Biodiversity Strategic Plan for SDG target fully covered by which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, Strategy Biodiversity existing Dutch policy targets: eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported 2011–2020 Reconsider target horizon and and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new target level. such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation b 15 Protect, restore and 15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and Natuurpact Water Framework Ramsar convention, SDG target fully covered by promote sustainable sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater [nature covenant] Directive, Birds Strategic Plan for existing Dutch policy targets: use of terrestrial ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, Directive, Habitats Biodiversity Reconsider target horizon and ecosystems, sustainably wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with Directive, EU 2011–2020 target level. manage forests, combat obligations under international agreements Biodiversity desertification, and Strategy halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss 15.2 By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable - EU Biodiversity Strategic Plan for SDG target fully covered by management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, Strategy Biodiversity existing Dutch policy targets: restore degraded forests and substantially increase 2011–2020 Reconsider target horizon and afforestation and reforestation globally target level. Appendix A | 47 Table A.1 (continued) Existing policy agreements and targets Policy challenge for the # Goal # Target National European Global Netherlands 15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land Programmatische EU Biodiversity Convention SDG target fully covered by and soil, including land affected by desertification, Aanpak Stikstof Strategy, NEC to Combat existing Dutch policy targets: drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land [Integrated Directive Desertification Reconsider target horizon and degradation-neutral world Approach to (UNCCD), Strategic target level. Nitrogen] Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 15.5 Take urgent and significant action to reduce the Programmatische Birds Directive, Strategic Plan for SDG target fully covered by degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of Aanpak Stikstof Habitats Directive, Biodiversity existing Dutch policy targets: biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the [Integrated EU Biodiversity 2011–2020 Reconsider target horizon and extinction of threatened species Approach to Strategy, target level. Nitrogen] NEC Directive 48 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands 15.6 Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising - - Strategic Plan SDG target fully covered by from the utilization of genetic resources and promote for Biodiversity existing Dutch policy targets: appropriate access to such resources, as internationally 2011–2020, Nagoya Reconsider target horizon and agreed Protocol on Access target level. and Benefit Sharing 15.7 Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of - - Convention on the SDG target fully covered by protected species of flora and fauna and address both International Trade existing Dutch policy targets: demand and supply of illegal wildlife products in Endangered Reconsider target horizon and Species of Wild target level. Flora and Fauna (CITES), Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 15.8 By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction - EU Biodiversity International SDG target fully covered by and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien Strategy, EU Plant Protection existing Dutch policy targets: species on land and water ecosystems and control or Regulation on Convention, Reconsider target horizon and eradicate the priority species invasive alien Strategic Plan for target level. species Biodiversity 2011–2020 15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values Uitvoeringsagenda EU Biodiversity Strategic Plan for SDG target fully covered by into national and local planning, development processes, Natuurlijk Kapitaal Strategy Biodiversity existing Dutch policy targets: poverty reduction strategies and accounts [natural capital 2011–2020 Reconsider target horizon and agenda] target level. a Acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change. b Taking into account ongoing World Trade Organization negotiations, the Doha Development Agenda and the Hong Kong ministerial mandate. Appendix B Gap analysis: Evaluating Dutch policy performance on current targets Table B.1 provides an overview of the extent to which existing Dutch policy targets – relevant for the environment- related SDG targets listed in Appendix A – are expected to be achieved once all declared and officially proposed policy measures have been implemented. This analysis is based on the Assessment of the Dutch Human Environment 2014 (PBL, 2015). The column ‘Target horizon’ indicates the year by which the current targets are supposed to be achieved. The four colour codes provide a quick overview of the assessment of policy progress (see key below Table B.1). The column ‘Additional information’ summarises relevant recent policy developments/options. More detail on recent developments in various environmental policy sub-areas is provided in Chapters 2–7 of the 2014 Assessment and on the Assessment’s website (www.pbl.nl/balans2014 ; in Dutch). The column ‘Related SDG targets’ links the existing Dutch policy targets to specific SDG targets based on the theme or problem they address. Note that the SDG targets have yet to be translated into national policy targets. Hence, the colour codes do not say anything about the extent to which specific SDG targets are expected to be achieved in the Netherlands. 50 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands Table B.1 Dutch policy performance on existing national targets: extent to which existing environment-related policy targets are expected to be achieved once all declared and officially proposed policy measures have been implemented (PBL, 2015). The last column shows the related SDG targets Climate and energy Target Assessment Assessment Additional information Related horizon 2012 2014 SDG targets Kyoto target 2008– The Netherlands has more than enough 13.2 2012 emission rights to meet its Kyoto commitments. Greenhouse gas 2020 According to the NEV report (ECN and PBL, 13.2 emissions, EU target, 2014), full implementation of the Energy non-ETS sectors Agreement will limit cumulative emissions over the 2013–2020 period to 808–811 Mt CO2 equivalents; well below the target of 897 Mt. Renewable energy, According to the NEV report, the share of 7.2 EU directive, 2020 renewable energy in 2023 is expected to rise national target 2023 to between 13.1% and 15.9%; likely to remain below the target of 16%. Wind on land 2020 According to the NEV report, the installed 7.2 capacity of wind turbines on land is expected to increase to between 4 and 6 GW by 2020, while the target is 6 GW. Wind at sea 2023 According to the NEV report, the installed 7.2 capacity is expected to increase to between 2.0 and 4.4 GW by 2023, while the target is 4.45 GW. The range covers the uncertainties on reductions in expected costs of this technology and the lead time of projects. Energy saving 2020 According to the NEV report, average annual 7.3 energy saving will increase to between 1.0% and 1.4% in the period up to 2020, while the target is 1.5% per year. Air pollution NO x emissions From In 2012, nitrogen oxide emissions were 3.9, 11.6, 15.5 2010 12 kt (5%) below the EU emission ceiling, as applicable from 2010 (NEC). SO2 emissions From In 2012, 16 kt (32%) below the EU emission 3.9, 11.6 2010 ceiling. NH3 emissions From In 2012, 8 kt (6%) below the EU emission ceiling. 3.9, 11.6, 15.5 2010 NMVOC emissions From In 2012, 35 kt (19%) below the EU emission 3.9, 11.6 2010 ceiling. Local air quality, PM10 2011 Data not yet available. 3.9, 11.6 Local air quality, NO2 2015 50 km of national main roads not yet meet the 3.9, 11.6 standard; strong improvement since 2000. PM2.5 exposure index - Data not yet available. 3.9, 11.6 Agriculture and food Manure production - Nitrogen production well below manure 2.4 ceiling production ceiling of 2002. Phosphate production increased again in 2013 due to growth in dairy herd and increased phosphate levels in concentrates. Unclear whether nutrient tracking will be effective enough to limit manure production to 2002 level. Nitrates in upper - Southern sandy region and loess region remain 2.4, 3.9, 6.3 groundwater problem areas even after 2013. Appendix B | 51 Climate and energy Target Assessment Assessment Additional information Related horizon 2012 2014 SDG targets Exceedance of surface - Substances subject to an annual average EQS 2.4 water quality standards, (EQS-AA) standard exceeded that standard in crop protection about 25% of the monitoring locations, in both products 2010 and 2012. This was 50% for substances subject to a maximum allowable risk level (MTR). MTR levels will eventually be replaced by AA and MAC (maximum concentration) EQS levels. Ammonia emissions, 2010 Ammonia emission levels are decreasing; the 2.4 agriculture 2020 2010 NEC target has already been achieved. The NEC target for 2020 (-13% compared to 2005) may also have been achieved, but emission projections are uncertain. Antibiotic use in 2013– Antibiotic use in livestock farming is decreasing; 2.4 livestock farming 2015 50% reduction target between 2009 and 2013 already was achieved in 2012. The reduction target for 2015 is 70%. More sustainable meat 2023 Consumption of ‘more sustainable’ meat 2.4 increasing, but current rate of increase still too low to achieve 2023 target. Sustainable animal 2015 10% fully sustainable housing: target achieved 2.4 housing by more than 8%. Food wastage 2015 National target: reduce total food wastage by 12.3 20% by 2015, compared to 2009 levels. Waste at consumer level – largest contributor – is not yet decreasing. Water Surface water quality 2027 Between 5% and 40% of surface water bodies 3.9, 6.3 to meet all WFD targets by 2027. Water shortages and 2015 Sufficient water for most users in normal and 6.4 freshwater supply dry years. Swimming water quality 2015 objective – ‘all locations acceptable 3.9, 6.3 quality’ – almost achieved but no further improvement in recent years. Flood protection - Flood protection level not yet up to the desired 11.5, 13.1 standard. New flood protection policy being developed within Delta programme. Nature and biodiversity New NNN acquisition - Nature Network Netherlands (NNN, formerly 6.6, 15.1, 15.5 EHS) targets in Nature Pact recently reviewed; increase in NNN area. Environmental pressure - The environmental pressure on nature has 6.6, 15.1, 15.2, on nature areas decreased considerably, since 1990, but is 15.5 still above the level required for sustainable conservation. Decline in threatened - Fewer species threatened; severity of threat 15.5 species decreasing, on average. Conservation status - Many of the species and habitats included in 6.6, 15.5 the European Birds and Habitats Directives have an unfavourable conservation status in the Netherlands. Ecosystem quality - Decline in average quality of many types of 6.6, 15.1, 15.2, nature since 1994. The rate of decline has 15.3, 15.5 levelled off in recent years. Ecosystem service - The provision of various national ecosystem 15.9 provision services has decreased over the last 25 years or so, while demand has increased. Policy targets have not yet been described in sufficient detail to allow evaluation. 52 | Sustainable Development Goals in the Netherlands Climate and energy Target Assessment Assessment Additional information Related horizon 2012 2014 SDG targets Removal of ecological - Still insufficient clarity concerning solutions for 6.6, 15.1, 15.5 barriers through problems in former main ecological links. construction of national infrastructure Environmental quality urban environment Waste generation 2015 Waste production relatively stable in recent 11.6, 12.5 years, below waste generation ceiling. Waste recycling 2015 Target achieved in 2010. 11.6, 12.5 Household waste 2015 Percentage of collected sorted waste increased 11.6, 12.5 recycling slightly, from 45% in 2000 to 50% in 2012. Waste incineration and - The reduction target for dumping of 11.6, 12.5 landfill combustible waste will probably be achieved. However, amount of waste sent to landfill increased considerably in 2012. Policy implementation will probably result in target being achieved Expected developments will probably result in target being achieved, a more robust policy would allow for setbacks Expected developments will probably not result in target being achieved, may be possible if policy is intensified Expected developments will probably not result in target being achieved, fundamental review of current approach required through application of different policy instruments or different targets Not yet possible to ascertain This analysis has not yet been carried out. Appendix B | 53 PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency Mailing address PO Box 30314 2500 GH The Hague The Netherlands Visiting address Oranjebuitensingel 6 2511VE The Hague T +31 (0)70 3288700 www.pbl.nl/en February 2016